Throughout the biological and biomedical sciences there is a growing need for, prescriptive ‘minimum information’ (MI) checklists specifying the key information to include when reporting experimental results are beginning to find favor with experimentalists, analysts, publishers and funders alike. Such checklists aim to ensure that methods, data, analyses and results are described to a level sufficient to support the unambiguous interpretation, sophisticated search, reanalysis and experimental corroboration and reuse of data sets, facilitating the extraction of maximum value from data sets (...) them. However, such ‘minimum information’ MI checklists are usually developed independently by groups working within representatives of particular biologically- or technologically-delineated domains. Consequently, an overview of the full range of checklists can be difficult to establish without intensive searching, and even tracking thetheir individual evolution of single checklists may be a non-trivial exercise. Checklists are also inevitably partially redundant when measured one against another, and where they overlap is far from straightforward. Furthermore, conflicts in scope and arbitrary decisions on wording and sub-structuring make integration difficult. This presents inhibit their use in combination. Overall, these issues present significant difficulties for the users of checklists, especially those in areas such as systems biology, who routinely combine information from multiple biological domains and technology platforms. To address all of the above, we present MIBBI (Minimum Information for Biological and Biomedical Investigations); a web-based communal resource for such checklists, designed to act as a ‘one-stop shop’ for those exploring the range of extant checklist projects, and to foster collaborative, integrative development and ultimately promote gradual integration of checklists. (shrink)

The Problem of Nearly Convergent Knowledge is an updated and stronger version of the Problem of Convergent Knowledge, which presents a problem for the traditional, binary view of knowledge in which knowledge is a two-place relation between a subject and the known proposition. The problem supports Knowledge Contrastivism, the view that knowledge is a three-place relation between a subject, the known proposition, and a proposition that disjoins the alternatives relevant to what the subject knows. For example, if knowledge is contrastive, (...) I do not simply know that the bird in front of me is a goldfinch; instead, I know that the bird in front of me is a goldfinch rather than a raven or eagle or falcon. There is, however, a binary view of knowledge that overcomes even the Problem of Nearly Convergent Knowledge. I will give this binary view, show that it is motivated by the same considerations that motivate Knowledge Contrastivism, and argue that it avoids problematic consequences for our epistemic lives that Knowledge Contrastivism cannot. (shrink)

Classical acquaintance theory is any version of classical foundationalism that appeals to acquaintance in order to account for non-inferential justification. Such theories are well suited to account for a kind of infallible non-inferential justification. Why am I justified in believing that I’m in pain? An initially attractive (partial) answer is that I’m acquainted with my pain. But since I can’t be acquainted with what isn’t there, acquaintance with my pain guarantees that I’m in pain. What’s less clear is whether, given (...) classical acquaintance theory, it’s possible to have non-inferential justification to believe something false. Classical acquaintance theorists try to make room for such a possibility, but I argue that the attempts of Richard Fumerton, Ali Hasan, and Evan Fales are inadequate. I’ll focus on introspective justification, but similar issues arise for a priori justification as well. (shrink)

It is trivially true that comedians make jokes and thus are not serious; they are “just playing.” But watching Louis CK, especially his performances in Chewed Up, Shameless, and Hilarious, it is evident that he has more in mind than simply getting his audience to frivolously guffaw. I will make the case that this is so given the content of some of his humor which centers on areas of socio-political-ethical tensions that can be uncomfortable when addressed in a direct, “bona-fide” (...) communicative mode. I will concentrate upon his playful, yet serious, account of issues surrounding race and privilege which, though not obvious center-pieces, can be found in almost all of his performances. These are complex areas that are not obvious fodder for humor, and it is clear that his comedic repertoire is broad enough that he is not including these issues for lack of funnier bits. I will argue that through his humor, he at once brings to consciousness hidden biases, challenges them in a subversive manner on behalf of those harmed by cultural stereotypes, e.g., and opens up an otherwise adversarial audience to the possibility that they harbor such unwanted stereotypes—a necessary element in consciousness-raising. My account will require a brief distinction between seriousness and playfulness, a defense of the claim that we are drawn to humor even when it is used to question our cherished presuppositions, and an interpretation of thought experiments that parallels Louis CK’s comedic mechanisms in his stand-up performances and episodes from Louie. In some cases he is explicit that he is just “making shit up” (Oh My God), or, as he cautions in the setup to a story in Shameless, “it doesn’t matter cus’ I’m gonna lie to you.” But that does not take away from my point that he is serious with his humor about social reality in the same way that philosophers have traditionally “made shit up” with thought experiments for serious purposes. Louis CK employs a similar device with his humor, and in many ways is more effective than philosophers in making the implicit explicit for his (much larger) audiences who then spread his word. (shrink)

The Common Anatomy Reference Ontology (CARO) is being developed to facilitate interoperability between existing anatomy ontologies for different species, and will provide a template for building new anatomy ontologies. CARO has a structural axis of classification based on the top-level nodes of the Foundational Model of Anatomy. CARO will complement the developmental process sub-ontology of the GO Biological Process ontology, using it to ensure the coherent treatment of developmental stages, and to provide a common framework for the model organism communities (...) to classify developmental structures. Definitions for the types and relationships are being generated by a consortium of investigators from diverse backgrounds to ensure applicability to all organisms. CARO will support the coordination of cross-species ontologies at all levels of anatomical granularity by cross-referencing types within the cell type ontology (CL) and the Gene Ontology (GO) Cellular Component ontology. A complete cross-species CARO could be utilized in other ontologies for cross-product generation. (shrink)

Many philosophers sympathetic with a Humean understanding of laws of nature have thought that, in the final analysis, the fundamental laws will include not only the traditional dynamical equations, but also two additional principles: the Past Hypothesis and the Statistical Postulate. The former says that the universe began in a particular very-low-entropy macrostate M(0), and the latter posits a uniform probability distribution over the microstates compatible with M(0). Such a view is arguably vindicated by the orthodox Humean Best System Account (...) (BSA). However, I argue here that recent developments of the BSA render the Past Hypothesis otiose. In particular, the trend among Humeans toward a more pragmatic view of laws — according to which the best system is the one that is maximally effective at helping creatures like us amplify our information about the world — does not support the idea that the Past Hypothesis is a law of nature. (shrink)

“ A man orders a whole pizza pie for himself and is asked whether he would like it cut into eight or four slices. He responds, ‘Four, I’m on a diet ”’ (Noël Carroll) -/- While not hilarious --so funny that it induces chortling punctuated with outrageous vomiting--this little gem is amusing. We recognize that something has gone wrong. On a first reading it might not compute, something doesn’t quite make sense. Then, aha! , we understand the hapless dieter has (...) misapplied general rules of thumb, mental short-cuts, or heuristics, that we were also initially committed to and that would usually be good enough to rely upon— fewer slices equals fewer calories; diets require fewer calories, etc—but in this particular case they fail, and the feeling of mirth is our reward for making this discovery. We don’t say all of that after a punchline, of course, but that’s what is happening according to the Humor as Error-Detection Theory : our sense of humor can sense our errors. This chapter will focus on the overlap and benefits of a humorous and philosophical attitude toward the world and our place in it. The historian of philosophy Will Durant tells us that genuine philosophy begins when one learns to doubt; we can say something similar with humor--trust me. (shrink)

This thesis proposes that key, competing theories of dispositions mistake and conflate how we identify, designate and talk about dispositions and dispositional terms for the nature of dispositions and the meaning of dispositional terms when they argue that: a) dispositions are extrinsic properties of their bearers (Boyle 1666) b) all properties are purely dispositional (Bird 2007) c) all properties are purely categorical (there are no dispositional properties) (Armstrong in AMP 1996) d) dispositional and categorical properties are separate and distinct (...) properties (Prior, Pargetter and Jackson 1982). In so doing these theories make unwarranted and unsupported ontological conclusions about dispositions. The thesis traces the principal source of this confusion and conflation to a reliance on the counterfactual analysis of dispositions that wrongly encourages the conflation of a disposition (say fragility) with its manifestation (shattering). There is good reason to hold that the counterfactual analysis of dispositions is false — the truth of a counterfactual statement (such as “if x were dropped x would break”) is neither necessary nor sufficient for the truth of a dispositional ascription (such as “x is fragile”). (shrink)

Bird reveals an important problem at the heart of Armstrong’s theory of laws of nature: to explain how a law necessitates its corresponding regularity, Armstrong is committed to a vicious regress. In his very brief response, Armstrong gestures towards an argument that, as he admits, is more of a “speculation.” Later, Barker and Smart argue that a very similar problem threatens Bird’s dispositional monist theory of laws of nature and he is committed to a similar vicious regress. In (...) this paper, first, I construct Armstrong’s would-be argument in response to Bird. Second, I argue that his response makes his account of laws and natural properties incompatible with science. Finally, I argue that Armstrong’s strategy to address Bird’s criticism can be used, quite ironically, to defuse Barker and Smart’s argument against Bird. (shrink)

The paper discusses the sense in which the changes undergone by normative economics in the twentieth century can be said to be progressive. A simple criterion is proposed to decide whether a sequence of normative theories is progressive. This criterion is put to use on the historical transition from the new welfare economics to social choice theory. The paper reconstructs this classic case, and eventually concludes that the latter theory was progressive compared with the former. It also briefly comments on (...) the recent developments in normative economics and their connection with the previous two stages. (Published Online April 18 2006) Footnotes1 This paper suspersedes an earlier one entitled “Is There Progress in Normative Economics?” (Mongin 2002). I thank the organizers of the Fourth ESHET Conference (Graz 2000) for the opportunity they gave me to lecture on this topic. Thanks are also due to J. Alexander, K. Arrow, A. Bird, R. Bradley, M. Dascal, W. Gaertner, N. Gravel, D. Hausman, B. Hill, C. Howson, N. McClennen, A. Trannoy, J. Weymark, J. Worrall, two annonymous referees of this journal, and especially the editor M. Fleurbaey, for helpful comments. The editor's suggestions contributed to determine the final orientation of the paper. The author is grateful to the LSE and the Lachmann Foundation for their support at the time when he was writing the initial version. (shrink)

-/- IFPE – Campus Belo Jardim Curso Técnico em Agropecuária -/- AVICULTURA: ANATOMIA DA GALINHA -/- AVICULTURA Anatomia básica da galinha -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- A galinha é um animal vertebrado de sangue quente, parente evoluído dos répteis. Embora haja semelhanças entre ambas as espécies (aves e répteis), também existem grandes diferenças. Os répteis são seres pecilotérmicos, isto é, possuem sangue frio, o que significa que sua temperatura corporal não é regulada pelo seu próprio corpo para uma temperatura específica e, portanto, (...) é a temperatura do ambiente que geralmente a regula. Em contrapartida, as galinhas são homeotérmicas, elas possuem o sangue quente, o que significa que sua temperatura corporal é relativamente alta e, geralmente, quase constante. As galinhas, como qualquer outra ave, também são endotérmicas, ou seja, possuem a capacidade de gerar calor profundo, através dos nutrientes, para aumentar a temperatura do corpo. Em geral, as aves possuem uma média de 42 °C de temperatura corporal, o que é ideal para sua fisiologia normal, no entanto, quando estão em ambientes mais quentes as mesmas conseguem baixar sua temperatura através dos movimentos de batimento das asas para a expulsão do calor. Tanto os répteis quanto as galinhas põem ovos, ou seja, são animais ovíparos. Esses ovos são incubados, isto é, chocados com o fim de facilitar o desenvolvimento do feto embrião do corpo. O período de incubação dos ovos da galinha é de 21 dias. No entanto, a fêmea de réptil enterra seus ovos na areia ou no próprio solo, e a temperatura ao redor, do ambiente, é adequada para o crescimento do embrião em desenvolvimento. Durante o desenvolvimento embrionário natural, os ovos da galinha são cobertos (incubados) pela própria galinha e são mantidos a uma temperatura próxima da sua temperatura corporal durante todo o período de incubação. A temperatura ideal para a incubação dos ovos é de ± 37 °C (37,3 – 37,7 °C) e a umidade de 65%. Quando a galinha põe os ovos e percebe que está na hora de chocá-los essa passa por um período fisiológico de instinto materno para a incubação dos ovos, sendo denominado de “galinha choca”. Além de todas essas diferenças, a maioria das aves pode voar, enquanto os répteis não. -/- • EXTERIOR DA GALINHA -/- O corpo da galinha é coberto com uma combinação de pele, penas e escamas localizadas, sendo esta última uma derivação e/ou resquício dos répteis (Figuras 1 e 2). -/- PENAS -/- As aves estão quase que completamente cobertas por penas, o que é uma característica das mesmas, tornando-as diferentes de outros vertebrados. Durante o processo evolutivo da galinha, a maioria das escamas reptilianas transformaram-se em penas, apenas uma pequena parte se aproxima das escamas da pele dos répteis que é a das pernas. Ambas as escamas e penas são compostas principalmente da mesma proteína que é a queratina. As penas, dentre muitos propósitos, servem a muitas funções tais como: • Auxilia, juntamente com os ossos porosos (pneumáticos) na hora do voo; • Fornece a proteção contra as extremas temperaturas interiores e exteriores; • Repele a chuva e a neve; • Cria uma camuflagem natural contra os predadores; • Auxiliam na hora da reprodução; • Ajudam a atrair indivíduos da mesma espécie. Figura 1: nomenclatura do galo. Fonte: Adaptação da internet. Figura 2: nomenclatura exterior da galinha. Fonte: Adaptação da internet. -/- 1. Partes da pena Uma pena (figura 3) é composta de uma raiz chamada cálamo; uma longa pena ou eixo denominada raque para dar rigidez; farpas que se estendem a partir da pena; barba que se estendem a partir das farpas; e bárbulas que se estendem a partir da barba. Todas as partes, exceto o raque, tendem a entrelaçar na porção plana (a teia) da pena. A malha não é pronunciada na base da pena e a construção solta dá origem a penugem, muitas vezes diferente na cor da teia da pena. Figura 3: estrutura da pena de galinha. -/- Como as penas são estabelecidas? -/- Quando o pintainho nasce, ele é desprovido de penas. Exceto em suas asas e cauda, ele é coberto por uma leve penugem. Dentro de dias o poço entra em erupção e a teia da pena faz a aparição. Quando o animal tem entre 4 a 5 semanas ele está todo emplumado. As primeiras penas são fundidas, e um novo conjunto de penas nasce, ou seja, as penas mudam quando a ave tem cerca de 8 semanas de idade. Um outro conjunto de penas é concluído pouco antes da ave atingir a maturidade sexual, representando sua primeira plumagem madura. As penas representam entre 4 e 8% do peso vivo da ave, com diferenças relacionadas à idade, sexo e desgaste associados ao equipamento; aves mais velhas e machos têm uma porcentagem menor de penas do que as fêmeas e aves mais jovens. Figura 4: pintainho de 1 dia. Figura 5: frango com 45 dias. -/- Muda anual das penas -/- Como as penas velhas se desgastam, se quebram ou são arrancadas, a natureza proporcionou às aves adultas um método de renovação de rodas as suas penas uma vez por ano, soltando as penas restantes e criando um novo conjunto. O processo de queda e renovação das penas é conhecido como muda. Na natureza, as penas estão em constante queda em um padrão consistente para que a ave nunca esteja desprovida por completo de penas; a ave possuirá as penas velhas e as novas conforme forem surgindo. O processo normal de queda das penas velhas e de crescimento das novas requer de 3 a 4 meses. A muda e o crescimento de novas penas estão sob controle hormonal. Para a muda, as penas iniciam seu crescimento nós botões, isto é, na base das penas que, por sua vez, força as penas velhas a caírem naturalmente. Os níveis hormonais que induzem a produção de ovos e causam a ninhada inibem o crescimento dos botões das penas. Se a produção de ovos dor reduzida por meios artificiais, tais como a redução da ingestão de alimentos, a muda pode ser precipitada de forma mais rápida e completa, como ocorre nas denominadas mudas forçadas. Essas mudas são influenciadas pelo sistema alimentar ao qual as galinhas de postura, em especial, são submetidas a diminuição abrupta de ração, mudando o seu sistema fisiológico e demais funções. A galinha entra em estresse pela falta de alimento desavisado e começa um processo de mudança induzida artificialmente de suas penas. Esse método visa aumentar o tempo de postura das galinhas. -/- A forma da pena -/- As penas do corpo variam em tamanho sobre a superfície do corpo, o formato de ambas estão associadas com o sexo da ave. Os hormônios gonodais desempenham um papel crucial nessa variação sexual. Nos machos, esses hormônios são responsáveis pela ereção ou estreitamento das penas hackle, que ficam sobre o pescoço dos galos, da foice, sela e das penas falciformes menores dos machos. As penas não cobrem uniformemente o corpo, mas crescem em fileiras produzindo extensões de penas em áreas específicas do corpo. As principais penas estão localizadas no ombro, abdômen, coxa, costas, peito, pescoço, cabeça e nas asas. A ordem o tempo de aparecimento das penas são: Ombro e coxa 2 a 3 semanas Cauda e peito 3 a 4 semanas Pescoço, abdômen e perna 4 a 5 semanas Costas 5 a 6 semanas Coberturas da asa e cabeça 6 a 7 semanas Cor das penas -/- As penas podem ter muitas cores e padrões de cor. Em alguns casos, as diferenças de cor variam de acordo com a localização das penas no corpo. Os padrões de cor podem ser diferentes em ambos os sexos. As cores das penas e os padrões das penas são o resultado de diferenciações genéticas (a cor das penas está ligada ao sexo) e a presença de hormônios gonadotrópicos. Figura 6: penas do galo. Figura 7: penas da galinha. -/- Revestimento ceroso das penas -/- A glândula uropigial está localizada na área dorsal da cauda, e é a única glândula secretória presente na superfície das aves. Essa glândula segrega uma cera oleosa que a ave espalha sobre suas penas com o seu bico. O material faz com que as penas sejam resistentes à água; elas não absorvem água, e a água escorre rapidamente a partir das penas revestidas com esse óleo. -/- CABEÇA -/- A cabeça das aves é composta das seguintes partes: -/- 1. Crista -/- Existem vários tipos de cristas, mas apenas os três primeiros da seguinte lista são comuns nas aves comerciais, como é o caso da galinha. Os vários tipos de cristas incluem: -/- Figura 8: tipos de crista das aves. Fonte: Adaptação da internet. -/- O tipo de crista é resultado da interação gênica, conforme as leis de Mendel, mas o tamanho da crista está associado ao desenvolvimento gonodal bem como da intensidade da luz, seja ela artificial ou natural. A crista dos frangos de corte encontrados no Brasil, conforme as características genicas e/ou gonodais são a simples e a rosa. -/- 2. Olhos -/- As galinhas possuem a capacidade natural de discernimento de inúmeras cores, além da capacidade superior para concentrar e detectar os movimentos. Segundo o pesquisador STURKIE (1986) o olho da ave é o mais límpido órgão ocular de todo o reino animal. Nos olhos são encontradas ainda os anéis oculares, pálpebras e cílios compostos de penas cerdas de eixo reto. -/- Figura 9: olho de uma galinha. -/- 3. Orelhas -/- As espécies aviarias são conhecidas pelo seu profundo sentido auditivo. Sua produção de voz e capacidade de imitação de sons interfere na discriminação e intensidade de volume sobre a orelha. Na orelha também são encontrados os lóbulos que podem ser vermelho ou branco. -/- 4. Bico -/- O bico é um apêndice multifuncional de considerável importância. Ele está envolvido na apreensão de alimentos, defesa e agressão em comportamentos sociais, acasalamento, fabricação do ninho, preparação e comunicações entre os indivíduos. Suas funções normais são adversamente afetadas mediante a prática de manejo incorreta da debicagem, que consiste no corte do mesmo. Figura 10: cabeça de um galo. -/- Na cabeça das aves ainda são encontradas as barbelas, que são mais desenvolvidas nos machos e que, mediante a observação, podem indicar presença de doenças através da mudança de coloração. -/- PERNA -/- As canelas e a maioria dos pés são cobertos por escamas de algumas cores. A cor amarela é consequência dos pigmentos carotenoides dietéticos presentes na epiderme quando o pigmento de melanina encontra-se ausente. Os tons de preto são resultado do pigmento melânico presente na derme e na epiderme. Quando há uma pigmentação preta na derme e amarelada na epiderme a tonalidade fica esverdeada. Na ausência completa de ambos os pigmentos elas ficam esbranquiçadas. A coloração da perna das aves também pode ser ditada pela falta de nutrientes como o cálcio. As aves de postura depositam boa quantidade de cálcio dos ossos na casca do ovo, o que pode resultar na coloração branca da perna. As partes importantes da haste e do pé são o jarrete, canela e os dedos do pé. A maioria das galinhas possuem quatro dedos em cada pé, mas há algumas raças com cinco dedos. -/- PELE -/- A maior parte do corpo da ave é coberto com uma camada fina de pele. Com exceção da glândula uropigial (secretória) a pele é desprovida de demais glândulas. A ausência de glândulas sudoríparas torna impossível o resfriamento por evaporação da superfície do corpo da ave. A pele possui uma textura mais firme nas áreas da crista, lóbulos, bico, escamas, esporões e garras. Com exceção de certas áreas especializadas, a cor da pele é branca ou amarela. A coloração da pele também pode ser resultado de ingredientes adicionais da ração das aves, como o coloral. A densidade da cor amarela está indiretamente relacionada com a quantidade de xantofilas na dieta e inversamente correlacionada com a intensidade da produção de ovos. -/- • ESQUELETO -/- O esqueleto é a caixa de suporte do corpo ao qual os músculos estão ligados. A caixa torácica protege alguns dos órgãos vitais como o pulmão e o coração de impactos externos, e possui a capacidade de expansão e retração por meio da aspiração e/ou expiração do processo respiratório. Um exame minucioso da osteologia mostra que os ossos encontrados no esqueleto dos mamíferos também são encontrados no esqueleto das aves, como é o caso do fêmur. No entanto, alguns ossos da galinha são fundidos ou alongados. Outros são ocos para ajudar no voo, como os pneumáticos. A figura 11 ilustra os principais ossos encontrados no esqueleto da galinha. As vértebras do pescoço se movem livremente, mas ao contrário dos mamíferos, a porção restante da coluna vertebral é rígida, contendo vários ossos fundidos que conferem essa característica a coluna. Inúmeras vértebras torácicas estão unidas para formar uma base firme para a fixação das asas e seus músculos. Há também uma quilha pesada. As asas correspondem aos braços e mãos dos humanos com as pernas contendo os mesmos ossos encontrados na perna do homem, como o fêmur citado anteriormente. Os ossos do metatarso, comuns aos pés humanos, foram fundidos e alongados para formar a haste. -/- Figura 11: esqueleto da galinha. -/- Os ossos encontrados no crânio, úmero, quilha, clavícula e algumas vértebras são ocos, porosos e conectados ao sistema respiratório, com o ar movendo-se continuamente para dentro e para fora desses ossos especializados. A maioria dos ossos é leve, porém bastante resistentes. Há também um material ósseo macio e esponjoso conhecido como osso medular presente em quantidades variáveis nos ossos longos da perna (fíbula e tíbia), a alguns outros ossos do esqueleto de fêmeas que auxiliam o porte para a produção de ovos. Esse osso medular é usado para armazenamento de cálcio para uso posterior na produção de ovos, já que a casca do ovo é basicamente de cálcio. A quantidade de cálcio armazenada nesses ossos especializados é altamente variável, dependendo do comprimento e da taxa de produção de ovos; uma produção intensiva de ovos requer que esses ossos armazenam mais cálcio. A maior parte do cálcio necessidade para a produção da casca do ovo não é armazenada, mas vem diretamente da ração consumida pela galinha todos os dias. -/- • MÚSCULOS -/- Os músculos (figura 12) são classificados por sua função em voluntários e/ou involuntários. Os músculos voluntários são usados para o movimento e voo, enquanto que os músculos denominados involuntários (músculos lisos) são usadas no funcionamento de órgãos como o coração, intestinos, vasos sanguíneos e outros. Os músculos que movem a ave são especialmente importantes, mas aqueles que controlam a ação do coração, dos vasos sanguíneos, intestinos e outros órgãos vitais são tão importantes quanto, já que possuem uma função específica no bom funcionamento desses órgãos. Os músculos que movem as asas estão ligados à quilha (esterno). Esses músculos também suportam os órgãos vitais da cavidade abdominal. Esses músculos são bem desenvolvidos na maioria das aves, mas especialmente em frangos de corte, uma vez que a seleção genética produziu aves com peitos maiores. Os músculos são mais desenvolvidos e importantes em aves de corte, já que o músculo nada mais é do que a carne do animal, essa que é o consumo de bilhões de pessoas em todo o mundo. Nas galinhas pode-se encontrar tanto músculos brancos como vermelhos, dando origem a carne clara e a escura, pouco mais avermelhada. Na carne mais escura, é encontrado mais gordura e um composto de ferro e oxigênio denominado mioglobina, em comparação com a carne branca. Geralmente a atividade e função muscular determina sua cor. Na galinha, os músculos da perna são mais escuros do que os do peito, já que há um constante estresse nos músculos da perna que tem a função de manter o corpo ereto quando a ave está de pé. Nas aves voadoras selvagens, o músculo do peito é mais escuro porque o maior estresse é colocado sobre o mesmo durante o voo. Os frangos de corte possuem fibras musculares que são maiores em diâmetro e sua coloração é mais clara do que os de tipo camada. -/- • SISTEMA RESPIRATÓRIO -/- O sistema respiratório das aves é composto por: • cavidades nasais • laringe • traqueia • siringe (caixa de voz) • brônquios • pulmões • sacos de ar (9) • ossos contendo ar Os pulmões da galinha são pequenos em comparação com os dos mamíferos. Eles se expandem ou contraem ligeiramente conforme a expiração e aspiração, e não há um diafragma verdadeiro. Os pulmões são apoiados por nove sacos de ar e um grupo de ossos ocos, contendo ar. Há dois pares de sacos torácicos e dois pares de sacos na região abdominal, e um único saco de ar na região interclavicular. Figura 12: principais músculos da galinha. Fonte: FLORIANO, 2018. -/- Enquanto o ar se movimenta livremente dentro e fora dos sacos de ar, apenas os pulmões são responsáveis pela troca gasosa entre oxigênio e dióxido de carbono que ocorre durante a respiração. Tanto os pulmões quanto os sacos de ar funcionam como mecanismos de resfriamento à medida que a umidade de suas superfícies é exalada como vapor de água. A taxa respiratória é ditada pela concentração de dióxido de carbono presente no sangue; níveis maiores de CO2 aumentam a taxa, que varia entre 15 e 25 respirações por minuto na ave em repouso. -/- Figura 13: esquema do sistema respiratório da galinha. Fonte: SILVA. -/- • SISTEMA DIGESTIVO -/- A figura 14 apresenta o sistema digestivo simplificado da galinha. Os demais órgãos que o compõem são descritos abaixo. -/- BOCA -/- A galinha é desprovida de lábios, não possui paladar, bochechas ou dentes, mas possui uma mandíbula superior e inferior denominada bico que possui a função de apreensão da comida, defesa e outras específicas. A mandíbula superior está firmemente fixada ao crânio enquanto que a mandíbula inferior é articulada. O palato duro é dividido por uma longa fenda estreita no centro que está aberta para as passagens nasais. Essa abertura e ausência do paladar tornam impossíveis para a ave criar um vácuo para atrair água para sua boca. Portanto, para que possa beber água, a ave deve elevar sua cabeça para permitir que a água escorra pelo esôfago mediante a gravidade. A galinha possui uma língua em forma de punhal com uma superfície bastante áspera na região caudal da mesma, o que facilita a levar a comida para o canal do esôfago. A saliva, com sua enzima amilase que é usada na conversão dos amidos em açúcares durante o processo digestivo, é segregada pelas glândulas presentes na boca. Outra função da saliva de lubrificação dos alimentos que auxiliam no transporte das partículas dos alimentos para o esôfago e posteriormente ao papo onde transforma-se em bolo alimentar. -/- Figura 14: esquema do sistema digestório da galinha. Fonte: adaptação da internet. -/- As galinhas possuem menos papilas gustativas do que os mamíferos; enquanto o ser humano possui cerca de 9.000 as aves constam com apenas 250 a 350 papilas. As papilas gustativas da galinha estão localizadas em diversas regiões da boca e sob a língua. É difícil saber o sabor dos alimentos para as aves, no entanto os alimentos são consideradas como sendo ruins dentro da boca do animal, mas as aves respondem bem a gostos específicos como o sal e o açúcar. As galinhas possuem grande tolerância à acidez e alcalinidade da água de consumo, no entanto faz-se necessário oferecer uma água de qualidade e com pH próximo do 7. As aves conseguem discernir a temperatura da água, recusando a ingestão de água com temperaturas abaixo de 3 °C e com temperaturas acima dos 38 °C, a melhor temperatura gira em torno da ambiental (18 a 25 °C). -/- ESÔFAGO -/- O esôfago é o tubo pelo qual o alimento passa quando sai da paste traseira da boca (faringe) e vai para o proventrículo. É composto por duas regiões específicas, a parte superior que compreende a ligação entre a boca e o papo medindo aproximadamente 20 cm de comprimento na ave adulta e a parte inferior compreendendo o nexo entre o papo e o proventrículo medindo cerca de 16 cm de comprimento. -/- PAPO -/- Depois de ser engolido, o alimento sai da boca, entra no canal do esôfago e deposita-se em uma cavidade do corpo com características de uma bolsa denominada de papo, ao qual atua como o local de armazenamento do alimento transformando-o em bolo alimentar. No papo ocorre pouca ou nenhuma digestão, exceto a que envolve a secreção salivar da boca, que continua com sua atividade no papo, sendo assim o alimento é cada vez mais umedecido. Esse processo de alta salivação tanto na boca quanto no papo sobre os alimentos é para facilitar a total quebra do alimento em partículas menores, principalmente quando a ave possui uma dieta de milho em grão não triturado. -/- PROVENTRÍCULO -/- Um alargamento do esôfago pouco antes de sua ligação com a moela é conhecido como o proventrículo, às vezes alinhado de estômago glandular ou verdadeiro. É nesse compartimento ao qual os sucos gástricos são produzidos e segregados. A pepsina, uma enzima necessária no processo de digestão das proteínas, e o ácido clorídrico são segregados pelas células glandulares. A passagem do bolo alimentar pelo proventrículo é rápida, como consequência há pouca digestão do material alimentar nesse compartimento, no entanto o bolo alimentar vai para a moela, uma estômago mecânico que só é encontrado nas aves, na moela ocorre a ação enzimática sobre o bolo alimentar. -/- MOELA -/- A moela, às vezes denominada de estômago mecânico ou muscular das aves, fica entre o proventrículo e a porção superior do intestino delgado. Possui dois pares de músculos poderosos capazes de exercer grande força sobre os alimentos, triturando-os e formando partículas menores, além de possuir uma mucosa muito grossa, cuja superfície constantemente se desgasta e se desprende. A moela fica inativa quando está vazia, porém uma vez que o alimento entra nesse compartimento, as contrações musculares de suas paredes grosseiras entram em constante atividade. Quantos maiores as partículas dos alimentos mais rápidas são as contrações para quebrá-lo o mais rápido e eficientemente possível. Quando o material fino entra na moela sai em poucos minutos, mas quando o alimento é grosseiro pode permanecer nesta por várias horas. Para facilitar a quebra do alimento e a transformação do mesmo em partículas menores para a entrada no trato intestinal, as aves constantemente consomem pequenas pedras, cascalhos, areia e outros materiais que visam facilitar a moagem do alimento na moela. Atualmente, as práticas de moagem dos alimentos que formam as rações mais finas e o uso de fontes de cálcio com tamanho de partículas maiores para camadas praticamente eliminaram a necessidade de granulação nas dietas das aves comerciais de hoje. -/- INTESTINO DELGADO -/- O ID é composto por duas seções principais, a alça duodenal e o íleo. Dentro da alça duodenal encontra-se o pâncreas que segrega os sucos pancreáticos contendo as enzimas amilase, lipase e tripsina. Outras enzimas fundamentais do processo digestivo de açúcares e proteínas são produzidas e segregadas pelas paredes do ID. O ID é o local primário de absorção de nutrientes para a corrente sanguínea e, para as células. Na ave adulta, o IG pode chegar a medir aproximadamente 140 cm de comprimento. -/- CECO -/- Entre o ID e o intestino grosso encontram-se duas bolsas denominadas como ceco. Cada ceco tem aproximadamente 15 cm de comprimento na ave adulta. A função exata desse compartimento ainda não está bem definida, porém estudos concluíram que o ceco têm pouco a ver com a digestão, ele apenas participa em pequenas funções associadas à absorção de água. Uma pequena quantidade de digestão de carboidratos e proteínas, além da fermentação microbiana da fibra dietética também ocorre no ceco. -/- INTESTINO GROSSO -/- O IG é uma extensão relativamente curta do ID na ave, tendo cerca de 10 cm de comprimento na ave adulta. É duas vezes o diâmetro do ID. Estende-se a partir da extremidade do ID para a cloaca. O IG está envolvido no processo de reabsorção de água, e ao realizar esse processo, ajuda na manutenção do equilíbrio de água no organismo e em todo o corpo da ave. -/- CLOACA -/- A área bulbosa no final do trato alimentar (da boca até o ânus) é denominada de cloaca. Cloaca, no sentido comum, significa “esgoto comum” e, no caso da galinha, do aparelho digestivo, urinário e reprodutivo, todos desembocam na cloaca. É nesse compartimento que saem as fezes, o ovo, a urina, e por onde o galo deposita o esperma na galinha, porém em orifícios diferentes. Para facilitar a saída do ovo e para vedar os por presentes na casa contra microrganismos, na cloaca encontra-se uma glândula que secreta um óleo essencial para as funções citadas. O mesmo canal por onde são expelidas as fezes também sai a urina, logo as galinhas exoneram urina e fezes ao mesmo tempo e sobre o mesmo orifício. -/- ÂNUS -/- A abertura (ânus) é a abertura externa da cloaca. Seu tamanho varia muita nas fêmeas, dependendo se a mesma encontra-se ou não produzindo ovos, uma vez que fêmeas em produção possuem uma abertura mais dilatada para a passagem do ovo que é o feto do animal. É por esse orifício que passam as fezes e a urina. -/- ÓRGÃOS DIGESTIVOS SUPLEMENTARES -/- Certos órgãos estão intimamente associados a digestão nas aves, uma vez que suas secreções no trato gastrointestinal ajudam nos processos de quebra e absorção do material alimentar. São conhecidos como órgãos suplementares anexos e apêndices do sistema digestório. -/- 1. Pâncreas -/- O pâncreas encontra-se dentro da chamada alça duodenal do ID. É um órgão que segrega enzimas no duodeno por meio dos dutos pancreáticos. Essas enzimas ajudam na digestão de amidos, lipídios e proteínas. As enzimas, também conhecidas como sucos pancreáticos, neutralizam a condição ácida criada no proventrículo. -/- 2. Fígado -/- O fígado é composto por dois grandes lóbulos. Entre as funções do fígado está a secreção da bílis, um fluido ligeiramente pegajoso de coloração amarelo-verde ao qual contém ácidos biliares. Esses ácidos entram no ID sobre a extremidade inferior do duodeno e ajuda na digestão da gordura (lipídios). As secreções biliares não possuem enzimas digestivas. A função principal delas está associada a neutralização da condição ácida e ajuda na digestão da gordura formando emulsões. Além disso, o fígado está envolvido no metabolismo da gordura, proteínas e carboidratos. -/- 3. Vesícula biliar -/- Enquanto a galinha possui uma vesícula biliar, outras aves não. Como discutido supra, na seção do fígado, dois dutos biliares são usados na transferência da bile do fígado para os intestinos. O duro direitos através do qual a maior parte da bílis passa e é temporariamente armazenada, aumenta e forma a vesícula biliar. O duto esquerdo é menor, portanto, apenas uma pequena quantidade de bike passa através dele e vai diretamente para os intestinos. -/- • SISTEMA URINÁRIO -/- O sistema circulatório da galinha consiste em dois rins que se localizam logo atrás dos pulmões. Apenas um único ureter conecta cada rim com a cloaca. A urina das aves é composta basicamente de ácido úrico, que nada mais é do que o produto final do metabolismo proteico, que é misturado com as fezes na cloaca e expelido sobre as fezes como um material pastoso e branco. -/- • SISTEMA CIRCULATÓRIO -/- O objetivo do sistema circulatório é o transporte de oxigênio (O2) dos pulmões e os nutrientes que passam através das vilosidades presentes nas paredes intestinais para as células (sangue arterial). O sistema venoso transporta o dióxido de carbono (CO2) de volta para os pulmões e resíduos do metabolismo de volta para os rins para serem excretados do corpo através da urina. O coração da galinha, assim como o dos mamíferos, possui quatro câmaras, sendo dois átrios e dois ventrículos. A pulsação do coração na galinha pode chegar a uma taxa acelerada de cerca de 300 pulsações por minuto. Quanto menor a ave, mais rápidas são as contrações do coração, logo os batimentos são maiores. Os pintainhos mostram uma taxa aumentada à medida em que se desenvolvem. As aves sob a luz possuem uma frequência cardíaca mais acelerada, e na noite, sob baixa ou nenhuma luz, os batimentos diminuem consideravelmente. Estudos apontam que a taxa de galinhas individuais é mais baixa, porém pode acelerar mediante a excitação individual da mesma. -/- SANGUE -/- 1. Composição do sangue -/- O sangue é composto de plasma, sais e outros elementos, além de eritrócitos que são os glóbulos vermelhos e os leucócitos que são os glóbulos brancos (sistema imune). Na galinha, os eritrócitos possuem um núcleo em contraste com os dos mamíferos. O sangue da galinha contem cerca de 3 milhões de eritrócitos em cada milímetro cúbico. O baço serve como um local de armazenamento para os eritrócitos, expulsando o seu conteúdo para o sistema circulatório, conforme o necessário. O sangue constitui cerca de 12% do peso de um pintainho, e cerca de 6 a 8% em aves adultas. -/- 2. Função do sangue -/- O sangue possui inúmeras funções, dentre elas o transporte do oxigênio para as células do corpo; a remoção do dióxido de carbono a partir do O2 nas células; absorção de nutrientes do trato digestivo; transporte dos nutrientes para as células e tecidos; remoção de resíduos do metabolismo celular; transporte de hormônios produzidos pelas glândulas endócrinas para várias seções do corpo, além de ajudar na regulação do teor de água nos tecidos do corpo. -/- PRESSÃO ARTERIAL -/- A pressão arterial das aves de todas as idades pode ser estipulada através da medida de milímetros de mercúrio (mmHg). Mesmo a pressão do embrião em desenvolvimento pode ser medida. Tal como acontece com os seres humanos, a pressão arterial pode ser estimada segundo duas medidas separadas: 1. Pressão sistólica (arterial) 2. Pressão diastólica (como o sangue retorna ao coração) Seguindo essas medidas, a seguir estão apresentadas as pressões sanguíneas da galinha e do galo adultos: -/- Tabela 1: pressão arterial da galinha e do galo adultos Pressão sistólica (mmHg) Pressão diastólica (mmHg) Galinha adulta 145 – 180 133 – 160 Galo adulto 186 – 203 154 Fonte: STURKIE, 1986. -/- • SISTEMA NERVOSO -/- O sistema nervoso é o responsável pelo controle de todas as funções do corpo e consiste e inúmeras partes. O cérebro representa células nervosas altamente concentradas e serve como o alicerce de todos e quaisquer estímulos nervosos. A audição e a visão das aves são bem desenvolvidas, além disso a galinha possui a capacidade de discernir inúmeros sons e cores. A capacidade da galinha de distinguir os cheiros, no entanto, não é bem desenvolvido. As galinhas possuem a capacidade de aprendizagem; elas podem ser treinadas para seguir certos procedimentos físicos. Além disso, elas aprendem a reconhecer um grande número de companhias de terreno ainda jovens, e a capacidade de conhecer outras aves aumenta com a idade. -/- • GLÂNDULAS ENDÓCRINAS -/- Dentro do corpo encontram-se certas glândulas endócrinas além de certos tecidos que produzem produtos conhecidos como hormônios. Os hormônios passam diretamente para a corrente sanguínea e possui um efeito sobre as células e órgãos em muitas partes do corpo. Os hormônios são derivados primeiramente das proteínas e executam uma variedade de funções. Alguns aumentam a atividade de certos órgãos, outros diminuem a atividade dos órgãos, outros possuem um efeito sobre os processos metabólicos e reprodutivos. As glândulas produtoras de hormônios incluem: • Tireoide • Paratireoide • Hipófise • Hipotálamo • Testículo • Ovário • Pineal • Adrenal • Pâncreas Além das glândulas, os hormônios podem ser produzidos pela mucosa gástrica e intestinal. As funções e a interação dos hormônios são variadas e em grande número. A tiroxina, produzida pela tireoide, ajuda na regulação da taxa metabólica. O hormônio paratireoideo das paratireoides influencia o metabolismo do cálcio e do fósforo. Os hormônios hipofisários produzidas em uma pequena glândula na base do cérebro, ajudam no crescimento, e outros afetam a tireoide e a paratireoide; enquanto outros possuem um efeito pronunciado na ovulação, no oviduto, sobre a ninhada e na postura de ovos na fêmea, e na produção de sêmen no macho. Além de glândulas, hormônios também são produzidos pela mucosa gástrica e intestinal e um número de locais em todo o corpo. Os hormônios do ovário influenciam a deposição de gordura, aumentam a liberação de cálcio do osso medular e causam a ovulação. Os hormônios produzidos na glândula adrenal (suprarrenal) auxiliam na retenção de glicogênio pelo fígado e afetam o metabolismo mineral. Os produzidos pelo pâncreas produzem insulina e glicogênio, que regulam a utilização da glicose em seu nível na corrente sanguínea. Os hormônios do trato gastrointestinal aumentam a produção de suco gástrico, suco pancreático e da bílis. -/- • SISTEMA REPRODUTIVO -/- MACHO -/- O sistema reprodutor do galo (figura 15) consiste em dois testículos funcionais que localizam-se na área dorsal da cavidade corporal, em frente aos rins. Os dutos dos testículos desembocam no duto ou vaso deferente, que transporta o sêmen dos testículos para as papilas da área dorsal da cloaca e, em seguida, ao órgão copulatório localizado em uma das pregas da cloaca. Normalmente, o sêmen é armazenado no duto deferente onde é diluído através do fluido linfático; ambos são ejaculados como uma mistura durante a cópula. O pênis do galo é bastante pequeno. Uma linfa é produzida no pênis para formar uma suave ereção, todavia o pênis não penetra sobre a cloaca. Em vez disso, durante o processo copulatório, a cloaca da fêmea se abre e para expor a extremidade do oviduto onde o sêmen do galo é depositado. Uma vez que o sêmen plota-se no oviduto, ele é transportado do duto às bolsas, que são os locais de armazenamento do sêmen, onde é prendido antes do processo de fertilização do sêmen sobre o óvulo da fêmea. Os espermatozoides do galo possuem um capacete pontiagudo longo que é anexado a uma cauda longa (flagelo). O pH do sêmen deve ser neutro entre 7 e 7,4. O volume de sêmen ejaculado durante uma cópula pode ser alto chegando a 1,0 ml durante o primeiro acasalamento, volume que diminui para 0,1 ml conforme o número de acasalamentos. Figura 15: esquema dos órgãos reprodutivos do galo. Fonte: internet. -/- FÊMEA -/- O sistema reprodutor da galinha (figura 16) consiste em um ovário e oviduto funcional. A reprodução nas galinhas caracteriza-se, dentre outros pontos, pela ovoviviparidade, isto é, ao qual o embrião começa a se desenvolver dentro da galinha e termina seu desenvolvimento total de 21 dias fora do corpo da mãe, dentro do ovo. Algumas aves, como é o caso da galinha, nascem com os dois lados do ovário e oviduto, no entanto, apenas o ovário e o oviduto do lado esquerdo se desenvolvem e fincam funcionais. A galinha libera apenas 1 folículo (óvulo) a cada 25 horas, e esse óvulo (gema) é liberado todos os dias durante o ciclo da ave que é de 10 a 15 dias seguidos. Para suprir as necessidades do feto fora do corpo da mãe, o óvulo das aves é maior que o dos mamíferos. Os folículos possuem uma hierarquia entre eles, sendo assim, somente os que chegam a medir 8 mm de diâmetro continuam do desenvolvimento até a ovulação. O oviduto da ave é composto pelo infundíbulo, magno, istmo e útero. A vagina e a cloaca também fazem parte do trato reprodutivo da galinha. Detalhes específicos do trato reprodutivo da galinha será exposto no trabalho sobre formação do ovo. -/- • CRESCIMENTO DA GALINHA -/- O corpo da galinha é composto de grande número de células que são, geralmente, do mesmo tamanho em todas as raças, independentemente do peso corporal. A maioria dos desenvolvimento precoces no crescimento embrionário ocorrem como resultado da multiplicação celular, já que 1 célula se divide em 2, 2 em 4, 4 em 8, 8 em 16, 16 em 32, e assim por diante. Porém esse aumento rítmico não permanece por um período indefinido. Sendo assim, as células se especializam para a formação de diferentes componentes do corpo. A taxa de crescimento e a taxa de divisão celular das células especializadas varia de acordo com a função de cada célula e a idade do animal. Quando a ave é mais velha, a taxa de peso corporal diário é mais baixa, ou seja, o ganho de peso do animal será menor. -/- Figura 16: esquema do sistema reprodutor da galinha. Fonte: internet. -/- Após a eclosão, quando o número de fibras musculares (células únicas) já não aumenta, o crescimento das células musculares e nervosas passa a ser resultado do aumento das células e não da divisão celular. As fibras musculares possuem uma dimensão máxima que é controlada, principalmente, pela composição genética da ave, porém pode aumentar ou diminuírem de tamanho conforme quantidades variáveis de atividades. Tanto a síntese quanto a degradação de proteínas estão envolvidas e operam simultaneamente, com o resultado líquido determinando se os músculos aumentam ou diminuem de tamanho. Os músculos do peito são excepcionalmente bem desenvolvidos nas aves já que os mesmos são imprescindíveis para a movimentação das asas durante o voo, além de ser a parte da galinha com mais carne para o consumo. Atualmente, mediante o melhoramento genético, o peito e as coxas da galinha estão quase que 3 vezes maiores que os de frangos de 40 anos atrás (figura 17). A taxa de gordura de um frango está baseada em função do número de células que contém gordura. Algumas raças e linhagens de frangos possuem um número maior de células de gordura do que outras, uma consequência do melhoramento genético citado supra que aumentou a capacidade da carcaça (carne). As células de gordura atingem o desenvolvimento máximo no período inicial de crescimento. A capacidade de um frango de corte para ganhar peso rapidamente é principalmente o resultado de depósitos de células de gordura, em vez de aumentos no crescimento do esqueleto ou fibras musculares. Figura 17: desenvolvimento do frango de corte. Fonte: internet. -/- • ALTERAÇÃO CORPORAIS DURANTE A PRODUÇÃO DE OVOS -/- Durante algum tempo, as galinhas estão deitadas, isto é, no ciclo de postura, e em outro tempo elas estão sofrendo uma muda (figura 18) e certas alterações ocorrem em sua aparência. -/- MUDA -/- Algumas galinhas podem produzir alguns ovos após o início da muda, porém geralmente a cessação da produção de ovos se sobrepõe à muda. A duração do período da muda é variável. As boas produtoras de ovos passam pelo processo de muda no final da estação de postura, já os baixas produtoras de ovos mudam precocemente e lentamente. -/- Figura 18: galinha em processo de muda. Fonte: internet. Ordem da muda -/- Durante a muda, as penas caem das várias partes do corpo em uma ordem definida, geralmente a ordem é: 1° cabeça 2° pescoço 3° peito 4° costa 5° asas 6° cloaca/rabo Muitas vezes, um rebanho de aves vai experimentar um estresse temporário e abrupto resultante de uma possível doença ou mudança de ou no ambiente, o que causa uma muda parcial das penas da cabeça e do pescoço bem como das asas. Se a causa puder ser corrigida, não deve interferir na muda anual primária. -/- PIGMENTAÇÃO AMARELA -/- A coloração amarelada na pele e nas pernas da galinha pode ser em função de vários xantofilas (pigmentos hidroxicarotenoides) que são depositados na camada de gordura sob a pele. A única fonte de xantofilas casa aves é a dieta que ela come. Quanto mais xantofilas na ração, mais densa a cor da pele amarelada. Os xantofilas presentes nessa camada de gordura, sofrem continuamente uma degradação química, todavia são reabastecida a partir da alimentação da ave. -/- Branqueamento -/- Os xantofilas também são responsáveis pela cor amarela da gema do ovo. Porém, quando uma franga começa a colocar uma taxa elevada e rápida, a maioria dos xantofilas presentes na ração vai para as gemas dos ovos. Não sobra o suficiente para reabastecer aqueles que estão quimicamente perdidos na pele, em consequência da degradação, logo a pele começa a clarear. Quando mais tempo uma ave colocar os ovos, maior a taxa de clareamento (branqueamento). Quando a galinha tiver colocado cerca de 180 ovos, a pele terá uma coloração azul-branca. -/- OUTRAS MUDANÇAS RESULTANTES DA PRODUÇÃO DE OVOS -/- Há algumas mudanças relevantes na ave durante o curso da produção de ovos, as mais expressivas são: 1. A abertura do ânus torna-se grande e úmida; 2. Os ossos pubianos tornam-se mais finos; 3. O espaço entre os ossos pubianos aumenta; 4. A distância entre os ossos pubianos e a extremidade do osso da quilha aumenta. Essas características são fundamentais para a determinação do estado de postura das aves individuais. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- Anotações de aulas. Disciplina: Avicultura. Prof. Me. Cléber Rondinelli Gomes de Freitas. IFPE Campus Belo Jardim, 2017. BELL, Donald D. Anatomy of the chicken. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production. Springer, Boston, MA, 2002. p. 41-58. DYCE, Keith M.; WENSING, Cornelius JG; SACK, Wolfganf O. Tratado de anatomia veterinária. Elsevier Brasil, 2004. FLORIANO, Luciane Sperandio. Anatomia e fisiologia das aves domésticas. Ururaí: rede E-tec, 2018. GETTY, Robert. Anatomia dos animais domésticos. Rio de Janeiro: Interamericana, 1981. KOCH, Tankred et al. Anatomy of the chicken and domestic birds. Iowa State University Press. 1973. -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Normalista pela EEFCC Técnico em Agropecuária pelo IFPE Campus Belo Jardim Acadêmico em Zootecnia pela UFRPE Assistente Técnico e Pesquisador da Embrapa Semiárido Assistente Técnico do Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco E-mail: [email protected] Telefone: (82) 98143-8399 -/- Todos os direitos reservados Belo Jardim © 2020 -/- . (shrink)

Aristotle classifies opposition (ἀντικεῖσθαι) into four groups: relatives (τὰ πρός τι), contraries (τὰ ἐναντία), privation and possession (στρέσις καὶ ἓξις) and affirmation and negation (κατάφασις καὶ ἀπόφασις). (Cat. , 10, 11b15-23) His example of relatives are the double and the half. Aristotle’s description of relatives as a kind of opposition is as such: ‘Things opposed as relatives are called just what they are, of their opposites (αὐτὰ ἃπερ ἐστι τῶν ἀντικειμένων λέγεται) or in some other way in relation to them. (...) For example, the double is called just what it is double of the other (οἷον τὸ διπλάσιον, αὐτὸ ὃπερ ἐστίν, ἑτέρου διπλάσιον λέγεται). Again, knowledge and the knowable are opposed as relatives, and knowledge is called just what it is, of the knowable, and the knowable too is called just what it is, in relation to its opposite, knowledge; for the knowable is called knowable by something-by knowledge.’ (Cat., 10, 11b24-30) 2) Senses of relatives In Met., Δ, 1020b26-32 Aristotle distinguishes three senses of relatives: i) That which contains something else many times to that which is contained many times in something else, and that which exceeds to that which is exceeded. E.g. double to half ii) The active to the passive; e.g. that which can heat to that which can be heated iii) The measurable to the measure, e.g. the knowable to knowledge and the perceptible to perception. 3) Relatives and contraries Aristotle’s discussion of relatives is unbelievably ambiguous. While he enumerates relatives besides contraries, privation-possession and affirmation-negation as four types of opposition (Cat., 10, 11b15-23), not only does not he restrict relatives to oppositions but he also does not totally differentiate it from contraries. Aristotle distinguishes between two senses of relatives one of which is contraries: ‘We have distinguished elsewhere the two senses in which relatives are so called-some as contraries (ὡς ἐναντία), others as knowledge to things known, a term being called relative because what is said one to the other is said by the other to itself (τῷ λέγεσθαί τι ἄλλο πρὸς αὐτό). (Met., I, 1056b34-1057a1) It seems that this differentiation is the same as, and maybe the one he himself refers to, the differentiation between the second and the third senses of relatives in Met., Δ, 1021a27-32: ‘Relative terms which imply number or capacity, therefore, are all relative because their very essence includes in its nature a reference to something else, not because something else is related to it (πρός τι πὰντα ἐστὶ πρός τι τῷ ὃπερ ἐστὶν ἄλλου λέγεσθαι αὐτὸ ὃ ἐστιν, ἀλλὰ μὴ τῷ ἄλλο πρὸς ἐκεινο); but that which is measurable or knowable or thinkable is called relative because something else is related to it. For the thinkable implies that there is thought of it, but the thought is not relative to that of which it is the thought; for we should then have said the same thing twice.’ Although Aristotle confirms contrariety in relatives (e.g. virtue to vice and knowledge to ignorance), he denies that there is a contrary ‘to every relative’ as there can be no contrary to what is double or treble. (Cat., 7, 6b15-19) The fact that Aristotle dedicates one sense of relatives to contraries means that the fourfold division of oppositions is not such a strict division without any kind of community between them. In his example of the first sense, however, Aristotle says: ‘One and number are in a sense opposed, not as contrary, but as we have said some relative terms are opposed; for inasmuch as one is measure and the other measurable, they are opposed.’ (Met., I, 1057a4-6) Now, the question is: Is Aristotle’s first sense of relative a contrary or not? Aristotle tells us that the opposition in this sense of relatives is the opposition of measure and measurable. The second sense has two differences with the first one: i) it is not a contrary and ii) what is said by one of the relatives to the other is also said by the latter to the former. To differentiate it from the first sense, when the one is the measure of the other, the latter will be the measure of the former as well: ‘But though knowledge is similarly spoken of as related to the knowable, the relation does not work out similarly for while knowledge might be thought to be the measure, and the knowable the thing measured, the fact is that all knowledge is knowable, but not all that is knowable is knowledge, because in a sense knowledge is measured by the knowable.’ (Met., I, 1057a7-12) Aristotle’s assertion at Met., I, 1057a36-37 that ‘of relative terms, those which are not contrary have no intermediate’ ensures us that we must take the first sense as contraries. Here he mentions a criterion of differentiation between two senses: while the first sense accepts intermediates (as, for example, great and small do), the second one does not. (Met., I, 1057a37-b1) It seems, however, that it is only the second sense that is the essential sense of relatives because the first sense, Aristotle says, is an accidental sense: ‘The one is opposed then to the many in numbers as measure to things measureable; and these are opposed as relatives which are not from their very nature relatives.’ (Met., I, 1056b32-34) 4) Definition of relative Aristotle’s first definition of the category of relative (πρός τι) is as such: ‘We call relative all such things as are said to be just what they are, of or than other things, or in some other way in relation to something else (Πρός τι δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγεται, ὃσα αὐτὰ ἃπερ ἐστὶν ἓτερων εἶναι λέγεται, ἢ ὁπωσοῦν ἄλλως πρὸς ἓτερον). (Cat., 7, 6a36-37; repeated almost without any change in: Cat., 7, 6b6-8) Aristotle’s examples are larger (because it is what it is than something else (τοῦθ᾿ ὃπερ ἐστὶν ἑτέρου λέγεται) that means it is called larger than something) and double. (Cat., 7, 6a37-b1) Aristotle’s aporia regarding relative is about their relation with substances: whether no substance is spoken of as a relative, or whether this is possible with regard to some secondary substances. (Cat., 7, 8a13-15) In the case of primary substances, it seems that he is confident, at least at first, that neither themselves nor their parts are spoken of in relation to anything: neither an individual man is called someone’s individual man nor an individual hand is called someone’s individual hand (but someone’s hand). (Cat., 7, 8a15-21) Although it is obvious that most of secondary substances are not spoken of as relatives (a man is not called someone’s man) (Cat., 7, 8a21-25), there are some with them there is room for dispute: a head is someone’s head and a hand is called someone’s hand, which seem to be relatives. (Cat., 7, 8a25-28) Aristotle thinks this must be due to the previous definition’s being problematic: with that definition ‘it is either exceedingly difficult or impossible to reach the solution that no substance is spoken of as a relative.’ (Cat., 7, 8a28-32) Thus, Aristotle changes his previous definition to a new one: ‘Those things are relatives for which being is the same as being somehow related to something’ (ἔστι τὰ πρός τι οἷς τὸ εἶναι ταὐτόν ἐστι τῷ πρός τί). (Cat., 7, 8a32-34) Although the first definition does indeed apply to all relations, its problem is that it does not take ‘their own being relative’ (τῷ πρός τι αὐτοῖς εἶναι) the same as ‘their being what they are of other things’ (ἃπερ ἐστὶν ἑτέρων λέγεσθαι). (Cat., 7, 8a34-37) Although this change of definition is to exclude all substances from being relative, what Aristotle says in Topics (To., Z, 8, 146a39- ), seems to ignore this: ‘For of everything relative the substance is relative to something else, seeing that the being of every relative term is identical with being in a certain relation to something.’ 5) Necessary knowledge of the related Knowledge of that in relation to which a relative is spoken of is necessary when one knows the relative: it is impossible to know a relative and at the same time not to know that in relation to which it is spoken of. (Cat., 7, 8a37-b3) To prove this, Aristotle adheres to the definition of relatives: ‘If someone knows of a certain ‘this’ that it is a relative, and being for relatives is the same as being somehow related to something, he knows that also to which this is somehow related.’ (Cat., 7, 8a37-b3; cf. 7, 8b3-15 for Aristotle’s examples) This necessary knowledge of the related, if we call it so, dedicates Aristotle an epistemological reason, besides the ontological one mentioned in his definition, for the exclusion of substances. As we noted in our discussion of Aristotle’s definition of relatives, he changed his first definition to exclude all substances from being relatives. Therefore, it is evident that for him relatives must not include substances, either primary or secondary. Aristotle does have no problem with primary substances simply because it is evident for him that they cannot be relatives. The same can be said about most of the secondary substances as well. The problem for which he changed the definition of substances was about some secondary substances like ‘head’ or ‘hand’: the fact that it is possible to know a hand or head without necessarily knowing definitely that in relation to which it is spoken of proves that they are not relatives. (Cat., 7, 8b15-21) 6) Reciprocation Aristotle regards reciprocation (ἀντιστρέφειν) necessary in all relations: ‘All relatives are spoken of in relation to correlatives that reciprocate.’ (Cat., 7, 6b28-29; cf. Cat., 10, 12b21-24) The sense of reciprocation is clear by his own examples: ‘The slave is called slave of a master and the master is called master of a slave; the double double of a half, and the half half of a double.’ (Cat., 7, 6b29-31) Reciprocation of relatives is so necessary that if there seems that we do not have reciprocation, it must necessarily be due to a mistake and that in relation to which something is spoken of must have not been given properly. (Cat., 7, 6b36-7a1) Aristotle’s example is this: If a wing is given as of a bird, ‘bird of a wing’ does not reciprocate because it has not been given properly: a wing is of a winged and not of a bird; a wing is wing of a winged and a winged is winged with a wing. (Cat., 7, 7a1-5) Even if we do not have a proper name to have a proper reciprocation, Aristotle points, we must invent names. (Cat., 7, 7a5-15 and 7b10-14) Thus, having proper names is the condition of necessary reciprocation: ‘All relatives are spoken of in relation to correlatives that reciprocate, provided they are properly given.’ (Cat., 7, 7a22-23) This condition is also said in another way: there is no reciprocation if a relation is given as related to some chance thing or to something that is accidentally the related thing like when, for example, a slave is given as of a man or a biped instead of being given as of a master. (Cat., 7, 7a25-31) 7) Simultaneity of relatives Aristotle believes that in most cases relatives are simultaneous: double and half or master and slave must exist at the same time: when there is a half, there is a double and when there is a slave, there is a master. (Cat., 7, 7b10-14) However, this receives some exceptions like knowable, which is prior and can, thus, exist before and without knowledge. (Cat., 7, 7b22-27) What approves this non-simultaneousness for Aristotle is that the destruction of knowledge does not carry the knowable to destruction. (Cat., 7, 7b27-31) The same is said about perception and perceptible. (Cat., 7, 7b35-8a9) Aristotle attaches simultaneity to reciprocation. This reciprocation, however, is not a simple reciprocation but ‘reciprocation as to implication of existence’ (ἀντιστρέφει μὲν κατὰ τὴν τοῦ εἶναι) with the condition that neither be in any way the cause of the other’s existence. (Cat., 13, 14b27-29; the same is said also at: Cat., 13, 15a4-11) Aristotle’s examples are the double and the half because when there is a double there is a half and when there is a half there is a double but neither is the cause of the other’s existence. (Cat., 13, 14b29-32) (We have ‘reciprocation as to implication of existence’ also in relation between genus and species but it seems that this has a totally different sense there. 8) Having no independent reality That a relative cannot be a substance, either a primary or a secondary substance, is discussed in our review of both the definition of relatives and their reciprocation. The differentiation of relatives and substances are so deep for Aristotle that after questioning the possibility of any common element or principle for substances and relatives (Met., Λ, 1070a33-36), he asserts that no substance, on the one hand, is the element of relatives and none of the relatives, on the other hand, is the element of substances. (Met., Λ, 1070b3-4) Aristotle does not, however, suffice to this. For him, relatives have the least substantiality, which is, for him, almost the same as reality: ‘The relative is least of all categories a real thing (φύσις τις) or substance, and less than quality and quantity; and the relative is an affection of quantity.’ (Met., M, 1088a22-25) Aristotle believes that an evidence of this least reality (ὄν) and substantiality is that relatives have no proper generation, destruction or movement while each of substance, quality and quantity have them. (Met., M, 1088a29-35) Moreover, neither motion (Phy., E, 1) nor any kind of change is applicable to relatives so that relatives are neither themselves alterations nor the subject of alterations (Phy., Z, 3) and the process of losing and acquiring states cannot be considered as alterations because these are the result of the alterations of non-relative things of which they are states. (Phy., Z, 3) Relative is not even matter but is something different. (Met., M, 1088a24-25) The reason is that the matter is potentially of a nature but relative is neither potentially nor actually of a nature. (Met., M, 1088b1-2) To understand the status of relatives in Aristotle’s world, we have to make a tripartite classification; a classification that though Aristotle himself did not make, his assertions approve it. Based on this division, there are three kinds of being in the world: i) Independent beings: This class includes only substances. ii) Dependent beings: This class includes qualities and quantities. Although they are real, they are ‘in’ substances and cannot exist without them. iii) Super dependent beings: This class includes at least relatives. The fact that relatives must be considered in a third class different from substances, on the one hand, and qualities and quantities, on the other hand, is obvious not only from the previously mentioned texts (Met., M, 1088a22-25, 29-35 and b1-2) in which relatives’ reality is considered less than all substances, qualities and quantities and different from matters but from this text: ‘For there is nothing either great or small, many or few, or, in general, relative which is not something (τι ὄν) different (ἓτερον) [that is also] many or few or great or small’. (Met, N, 1088a27-30) Therefore, super dependent beings are those beings that must necessarily be also something else, i.e. an independent or dependent being. Ackrill (1963, 99) points that some of the words used by Aristotle to exemplify relational entities, e.g. slave, are endowed with a complete sense and do not need to be supplemented by a correlate. (Thus, the linguist criterion of incompleteness would be deficient. Some other instances of relative entities like ‘state,’ ‘knowledge’ and perception are not necessarily followed by the genitive case. 9) Extent of relatives What is the extent of relatives? What are or are not included in relatives either among categories or among other concepts? Which concepts or things Aristotle regard as relative? i) Aristotle includes state (ἓξις) and position (θέσις) among relatives. (Cat., 7, 6b2-6; Cat., 7, 6b11-14; Cat., 8, 11a20-24) ii) Although relative is not matter but is something different (Met., M, 1088a24-25), matter is ‘non-being’ only in virtue of an attribute (Phy., A, 9) and is, thus, a relative term. (Phy., B, 2, 194b9) 10) Property and relativity Aristotle draws a contrast between two types of giving a property, absolute and relative: ‘A property is given either in its own right and for always or relative to something else and for a time.’ (To., E, 1, ^128b15-18) Being a civilized man, for example, is an absolute property for man while to command is a relative property for the soul. The absolute property, however, is considered not only potential to be discussed or observed in relation to many things or periods of time, it in fact ‘belongs to its subject relatively to every single thing that there is, so that if the subject is not distinguished relatively to everything else, the property will not have been given correctly.’ (To., E, 1, 129a18-20) Therefore, an absolute property is a property that ‘is ascribed to a thing in comparison with everything else and distinguishes it from everything else.’ (To., E, 1, 128b33- ) An absolute property is, then, absolutely relative and not conditionally relative, i.e. relative to a specific thing. This is what differentiates it from a relative property, which is relative to a certain thing: ‘A property relative to something else is one which separates its subject off not from everything else but from a particular definite thing.’ (To., E, 1, 128b33- ) One important difference between absolute and relative properties is that while an accident can be a relative property, it can never be an absolute property. (To., I, 5, ^102b20-36) For example, sitting, which is an accident, is also a property relatively to those who are not sitting. (To., I, 5, ^102b20-36) 11) Platonic theories as relatives At least three of Platonic theories Aristotle attaches to relatives: i) Forms ‘It seems that a Form is always spoken of in relation to a Form-this desire itself is for the pleasure itself, and wishing itself is for the good itself.’ (To., Z, 8, 147a^10) Moreover, the theory of Forms takes the relative prior to the absolute as, for example, it takes not the dyad but the number as first. (Met., A, 990b15-17) Aristotle believes that this is against not only the necessities of the case but only the Platonists’ opinion because Forms must be substances only, if they can be shared. (Met., A, 990b27-29) There are, however, things like ‘equal’ which are only relative: they are only in relation to something else. Now the theory that ideas are supposed to be substances only should entail the substantiality of merely relatives. The reason being that Forms are not shared incidentally but each thing shares in that which is not predicated of a subject. (Met., A, 990b29-31) ii) Unequal The Platonic theory of great and small or unequal, which we know more from Aristotle and has, in Platonic philosophy, a role like that of matter in Aristotelian philosophy, is also called relative by Aristole. (Met., M, 1089b4-15) iii) Potentiality Aristotle says that Platonists take what potentially is a ‘this’ and a substance but not actually so a relative because it is ‘neither potentially the one or being, nor the contradictory of the one nor of being, but one among beings.’ (Met., N, 1089b15-20) 12) All things as relative Aristotle attaches the theory that ‘everything is true’ to relativity and thinks the consequence of believing in this theory is that everything is true: ‘He who says all things that appear are true, makes all things relative.’ (Met., Γ, 1011a17-20) 13) Genera and species of relatives There are some genera, Aristotle hints, that are relative but their species are not relative. In such cases, the genera are spoken of in relation to something, but none of the particular cases are so spoken. (Cat., 8, 11a20-36) Aristole’s examples are knowledge and grammar of which the former is a relative but the latter is a quality. The consequence of this is that there is nothing absurd for a thing to be in both genera of relative and quality. (Cat., 8, 11a37- ) However, when the species is a relative, the genera will be a relative too. (To., Δ, 4, 124b15- ) Moreover, Aristotle asserts that ‘the differentiae of relative terms are themselves relative.’ (To., Z, 6, 145a14-16) Things that are called relative are called so, Aristotle says, ‘because the classes that include them are of this sort, e.g. medicine is thought to be relative bcs its genus, knowledge, is thought to be relative,’ (Met., Δ, 1021b4-6) 14) Relatives as indefinite? Fabio Morales takes 1088a29-b1 as a textual evidence supporting the assumption that Aristotle regarded relational terms as indefinite. (shrink)

What happens to the inner light of consciousness with the death of the individual body and brain? Reductive materialism assumes it simply fades to black. Others think of consciousness as indicating a continuation of self, a transformation, an awakening or even alternatives based on the quality of life experience. In this issue, speculation drawn from theoretic research are presented. -/- Table of Contents Epigraph: From “The Immortal”, Jorge Luis Borges iii Editor’s Introduction: I Killed a Squirrel the Other Day, Gregory (...) M. Nixon iv-xi Research Essays The Tilde Fallacy and Reincarnation: Variations on a "Skeptical" Argument Teed Rockwell 862-881 Death, Consciousness, and Phenomenology, Steve Bindeman 882-899 The Idealist View of Consciousness After Death, Bernardo Kastrup 900-909 Consciousness, a Cosmic Phenomenon—A Hypothesis, Eva Déli 910-930 The Theory of a Natural Afterlife: A Newfound, Real Possibility for What Awaits Us at Death, Bryon K. Ehlmann 931-950 Near-Death Cases Desegregating Non-Locality/Disembodiment via Quantum Mediated Consciousness: An Extended Version of the Cell-Soul Pathway, Contzen Pereira & J Shashi Kiran Reddy 951-968 On the Possible Existence of Quantum Consciousness After Brain Death, Massimo Pregnolato & Alfredo Pereira Jr. 969-991 Science and Postmortem Survival, Edward F. Kelly 992-1011 Explorations ISS Theory: Cosmic Consciousness, Self, and Life Beyond Death in a Hyperdimensional Physics, Chris H. Hardy 1012-1035 Does the Consciousness End, Remain Awake, or Transform After Death? Radivoj Stankovich (with Micho Durdevich) 1036-1050 Big Bang Spirituality, Life, and Death, Ken Bausch 1051-1063 Death, Consciousness and the Quantum Paradigm, Ronald Peter Glasberg 1064-1077 Living With Limits: The Continuum of Consciousness, Donald Brackett 1078-1098 Mysticism, Consciousness, Death, Mike Sosteric 1099-1118 What Dies? Eternalism and the Afterlife in William James, Jonathan Bricklin 1119-1140 Theories of Consciousness and Death: Does Consciousness End, Continue, Awaken, or Transform When the Body Dies? Roger Cook 1141-1153 It’s the Other Way Around: Matter is a Form of Consciousness and Death is the End of the Illusion of Life in the World, James P. Kowall & Pradeep B. Deshpande 1154-1208 Statements A Feminine Vision for the World Consciousness, & a New Outrageous Ontology, Lorna Green 1209-1217 The Mask of Eternity: The Quest for Immortality and the Afterlife, Iona Miller 1218-1228 Are We Really “such stuff as dreams are made on”? Chris Nunn 1229-1225 Is the Afterlife a Non-Question? (Let's Hope Not), Deepak Chopra 1226-1230 Life After Death? An Improbable Essay, Stuart Kauffman 1231-1236. (shrink)

Proceedings of the papers presented at the Symposium on "Revisiting Turing and his Test: Comprehensiveness, Qualia, and the Real World" at the 2012 AISB and IACAP Symposium that was held in the Turing year 2012, 2–6 July at the University of Birmingham, UK. Ten papers. - http://www.pt-ai.org/turing-test --- Daniel Devatman Hromada: From Taxonomy of Turing Test-Consistent Scenarios Towards Attribution of Legal Status to Meta-modular Artificial Autonomous Agents - Michael Zillich: My Robot is Smarter than Your Robot: On the Need for (...) a Total Turing Test for Robots - Adam Linson, Chris Dobbyn and Robin Laney: Interactive Intelligence: Behaviour-based AI, Musical HCI and the Turing Test - Javier Insa, Jose Hernandez-Orallo, Sergio España - David Dowe and M.Victoria Hernandez-Lloreda: The anYnt Project Intelligence Test (Demo) - Jose Hernandez-Orallo, Javier Insa, David Dowe and Bill Hibbard: Turing Machines and Recursive Turing Tests — Francesco Bianchini and Domenica Bruni: What Language for Turing Test in the Age of Qualia? - Paul Schweizer: Could there be a Turing Test for Qualia? - Antonio Chella and Riccardo Manzotti: Jazz and Machine Consciousness: Towards a New Turing Test - William York and Jerry Swan: Taking Turing Seriously (But Not Literally) - Hajo Greif: Laws of Form and the Force of Function: Variations on the Turing Test. (shrink)

NUTRIÇÃO SOBRE A AZOOSPERMIA EM BOVINOS -/- -/- E. I. C. da Silva Departamento de Agropecuária – IFPE Campus Belo Jardim Departamento de Zootecnia – UFRPE sede -/- AZOOSPERMIA EM BOVINOS -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- A falta completa de esperma no ejaculado pode ser devido a uma falha no processo de espermatogênese ou relacionada a causas no transporte do esperma. Com relação ao transporte, o esperma pode ser impedido de ser ejaculado mediante bloqueios ou oclusões no sistema do ducto extragonadal, ou (...) por causa de uma disfunção ejaculatória. Nos cães, por exemplo, a possibilidade de oclusão ser a causa pode ser determinada por medições de fosfatase alcalina (ALP) no plasma seminal, já que a ALP se origina do epidídimo e seminífero epitélio tubular. Se a concentração de ALP no fluido seminal for superior a 5000 UI/l, a amostra ejaculada contém fluido desses tecidos e a oclusão pode ser descartada. -/- As causas testiculares da azoospermia incluem a falha da espermatogênese, que pode ser causada por uma série de fatores; estes incluem fatores hormonais, imunológicos, congênitos, tóxicos, patogênicos, traumáticos e nutricionais. Aqui, as supressões na região do AZF (que contém sub-regiões AZFa, AZFb e AZFc) no cromossoma Y desempenham um papel importante, representando 10-15% dos casos de azoo- e oligospermia. Na região AFZc, o gene DAZ, que é suprimido na azoospermia, é considerado importante no controle espermatogênico, uma vez que a sua eliminação é frequentemente detectada em homens e/ou animais inférteis. -/- A perda total da capacidade de formação de espermatozoides pelo epitélio testicular e, portanto, a ausência de espermatozoides viáveis ou não no volume ejaculado pelo animal é denominado como azoospermia (VARNER et al., 2000), um macho nessas condições deve ser imediatamente retirado dos processos produtivos e não é, de forma alguma, viável para fins reprodutivos. A origem da causa pode ter caráter nutricional, ou outras, sendo multifatoriais; em processos crônicos severos pode-se chegar à azoospermia reversível, que é diagnosticada e corrigida de forma oportuna. Entre os principais fatores de caráter nutricional temos: -/- 18.1 Nitratos (NO3-) e nitritos (NO2-) -/- Quando os ruminantes consomem uma alimentação com elevadas concentrações de nitratos (presente principalmente nas forrageiras) parte do nitrato não pode ser imediatamente convertido em nitrito e, por fim, em amoníaco (todas essas transformações acontecem no rúmen mediante a flora microbiana); isso faz com que nitrato e nitrito se acumulem no rúmen. A adição do nitrato no rúmen intensifica o problema. O envenenamento por nitrato ocorre quando o nível de nitrito presente no rúmen excede a capacidade do microbiota para convertê-lo em amoníaco. Quando isto acontece, o nitrato e o nitrito são absorvidos através da parede do rúmen e entram na circulação sanguínea. É o nitrito que causa a toxicidade. -/- Estudou-se o equilíbrio ácido-básico e sua relação com a reprodução e produção, postulando a hipótese de que esse equilíbrio afeta os mecanismos endócrinos e metabólicos, além dos reprodutivos. -/- 18.2 Relação energia:proteína -/- Quando a alimentação apresenta deficiências de energia aumenta-se a degradação das gorduras (provenientes do tecido adiposo), acompanhada pela redução da liberação de insulina (hipoinsulinemia) afetando-se a lipogênese, mobilizando-se mais gordura corporal do que se sintetiza. -/- Situações como a acidose ruminal (excesso de grão e deficiência em fibras) ou alcalose ruminal (excesso de ureia com baixa energia digerível) resultam em perturbações sobre a fertilidade; além disso, deficiências energéticas graves que levam à cetose causam estresse com a liberação de catecolaminas, ACTH e TSH que afetam a secreção de GnRH, afetando por fim, a espermiogênese. -/- -/- Uma diminuição de energia na alimentação gera hipoglicemia que, ao mesmo tempo, produz hipoinsulinemia incrementando assim a lipólise em tecidos, gerando como produtos as cetonas. -/- A hipoinsulinemia juntamente com a cetonemia e a geração de beta-endorfinas, por problemas na alimentação, reduzem notavelmente a síntese de GnRH. A GnRH reduz a liberação do LH e FSH. A diminuição da liberação do LH provoca azoospermia hipogonadotrópica com efeitos de estimulação hormonal anormais segundo a avaliação endócrina, bem como a obstrução testicular inexplicada. -/- Se houver um aumento significativo na liberação de FSH, a azoospermia hipogonadotrópica é refletida em diagnóstico como disfunção testicular. -/- 18.3 Minerais (Selênio Se) -/- Quando os níveis de Se na dieta são deficientes, ocorrem falhas na formação e maturação espermática. O Se mostra uma grande influência na fertilidade do macho afetando a qualidade do sêmen, o plasma seminal contém elevadas quantidades de GSH-Px, cuja função é proteger a membrana do espermatozoide do ataque peroxidativo; além disso, na cauda do gameta masculino há um selenopeptídeo que faz com que, em uma deficiência de Se, produza-se uma fratura no meio da cauda do espermatozoide. -/- O esperma dos animais com deficiência de Se apresentam pobre motilidade com características de desenvolvimento anormal na cauda do esperma. Demonstrou-se que a deficiência de Se, não somente precipita o problema em reprodutores, mas que o esperma deformado, foi menos efetivo na subsequente fertilização do ovócito ovulado (HAWKES et al., 2001), ou seja, animais que possuem deficiência desse mineral podem ter esperma inapropriado para a destinação de inseminação artificial ou mesmo a monta natural, uma vez que a taxa de concepção estará bastante baixa. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- BARRENHO, Gonçalo José Pinheiro. Nutrição e fertilidade em bovinos de leite. 2016. Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade de Évora. -/- BINDARI, Yugal Raj et al. Effects of nutrition on reproduction-A review. Adv. Appl. Sci. Res, v. 4, n. 1, p. 421-429, 2013. -/- BOLAND, M. P. Efectos nutricionales en la reproducción del ganado. XXXI Jornadas Uruguayas de Buiatría, 2003. -/- CHENOWETH, Peter J.; LORTON, Steven (Ed.). Animal Andrology: Theories and Applications. Boston: Cabi, 2014. -/- -/- DEHNING, R. Interrelaciones entre nutrición y fertilidad. In: Curso Manejo de la Fertilidad Bovina18-23 May 1987Medellín (Colombia). CICADEP, Bogotá (Colombia) Universidad de La Salle, Medellín (Colombia) Instituto Colombiano Agropecurio, Bogotá (Colombia) Sociedad Alemana de Cooperación Técnica-GTZ (Alemania), 1987. -/- DE LUCA, Leonardo J. Nutrición y fertilidad en el ganado lechero. XXXVI Jornadas Uruguayas de Buiatría, 2008. -/- DIAS, Juliano Cesar et al. Alguns aspectos da interação nutrição-reprodução em bovinos: energia, proteína, minerais e vitaminas. PUBVET, v. 4, p. Art. 738-743, 2010. -/- FRAZER, Grant S. Bovine theriogenology. Veterinary Clinics: Food Animal Practice, v. 21, n. 2, p. xiii-xiv, 2005. -/- FRENEAU, G. E.; GUIMARÃES, J. D. Curso Teórico-Prático de Andrologia Bovina. Goiânia: Laboratório de andrologia e Tecnologia de Sêmen da Escola de Veterinária da Universidade Federal de Goiás, 2000. -/- GORDON, Ian. Controlled reproduction in farm animals series. Nova Iorque: CAB International, 1996. -/- HAWKES, WAYNE CHRIS; TUREK, PAUL J. Effects of dietary selenium on sperm motility in healthy men. Journal of Andrology, v. 22, n. 5, p. 764-772, 2001. -/- MAAS, John. Relationship between nutrition and reproduction in beef cattle. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice, v. 3, n. 3, p. 633-646, 1987. -/- SHORT, Robert E.; ADAMS, D. C. Nutritional and hormonal interrelationships in beef cattle reproduction. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, v. 68, n. 1, p. 29-39, 1988. -/- THATCHER, W. W. et al. Strategies for improving fertility in the modern dairy cow. Theriogenology, v. 65, n. 1, p. 30-44, 2006. -/- TEIXEIRA, J. C.; TEIXEIRA, LFAC. Alimentação de bovinos leiteiros. FAEPE, Lavras, 1997. -/- VARNER, D. D. et al. Techniques for evaluating selected reproductive disorders of stallions. Animal reproduction science, v. 60, p. 493-509, 2000. (shrink)

Background: The castor bean is a large grassy or semi-wooden shrub or small tree. Any part of the castor plant parts can suffering from a disease that weakens the ability to grow and eliminates its production. Therefore, in this paper will identify the pests and diseases present in castor culture and detect the symptoms in each disease. Also images is showing the symptom form in this disease. Objectives: The main objective of this expert system is to obtain appropriate diagnosis of (...) the disease. Methods: In this paper, the expert system is designed for the ability of agricultural engineers to detect and diagnose disease of castor like as: seeding blight, alternaria blight, cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew and wilt. This system presents the disease symptoms, survival and spread, favorable conditions and image for each disease. Clips and Delphi expert system languages are used for designing and implementing the proposed expert system. Results: The expert system in the diagnosis of castor diseases was assessed by farmers and agricultural engineers and they were satisfied and accepted with its quality of performance. Conclusions: The expert system is easy for farmers and people have experience in the plant of castor to detect and diagnosis the symptoms that may face this plant from several disease. (shrink)

Is well-being the kind of thing that can be summed across individuals? This paper takes a measurement-theoretic approach to answering this question. To make sense of adding well-being, we would need to identify some natural "concatenation" operation on the bearers of well-being that satisfies the axioms of extensive measurement and can therefore be represented by the arithmetic operation of addition. I explore various proposals along these lines, involving the concatenation of segments within lives over time, of entire lives led alongside (...) one another or in sequence, and of evaluatively basic propositions via conjunction. All of these proposals turn out to carry highly controversial commitments about the good. I do not claim that these commitments are unacceptable. But they suggest that we cannot simply take for granted, as many philosophers do, that there is any such thing as the sum of well-being. (shrink)

I argue for an account of grasping, or understanding that, on which we grasp via a higher‐order mental act of Husserlian fulfillment. Fulfillment is the act of matching up the objects of our phenomenally presentational experiences with those of our phenomenally representational thought. Grasping‐by‐fulfilling is importantly different from standard epistemic aims, in part because it is phenomenal rather than inferential. (I endorse Bourget's (2017) arguments to that effect.) I show that grasping‐by‐fulfilling cannot be a species of propositional knowledge or belief, (...) and that it is not essentially connected to justification. I motivate a revisionary epistemology on which achieving propositional knowledge and coming to grasp are dual epistemic aims. My account makes sense of a common occurrence—that we are often unmoved to act on our beliefs until we come to phenomenally experience them in some way. It also explains puzzling features of human inquiry. (shrink)

Multidimensional concepts are everywhere, and they are important. Examples include moral value, welfare, scientific confirmation, democracy, and biodiversity. How, if at all, can we aggregate the underlying dimensions of a multidimensional concept F to yield verdicts about which things are Fer than which overall? Social choice theory can be used to model and investigate this aggregation problem. Here, we focus on a particularly thorny problem made salient by this social choice-theoretic framework: the underlying dimensions of a given concept might be (...) measurable on different types of scales—e.g., some ordinal and some cardinal. An underappreciated impossibility theorem due to Anna Khmelnitskaya shows that seemingly plausible constraints on aggregation across scale types are inconsistent. This impossibility threatens to render the notion of overall Fness incoherent. We attempt to defuse this threat, arguing that the impossibility depends on an overly restrictive conception of measurement and of how measurement constrains aggregation. Adopting a more flexible—and, we think, more perspicuous—conception of measurement opens an array of possibilities for aggregation across disparate scale types. (shrink)

What is the phenomenology of hope? A common view is that hope has a generally positive and pleasant affective tone. This rosy depiction, however, has recently been challenged. Certain hopes, it has been objected, are such that they are either entirely negative in valence or neutral in tone. In this paper, I argue that this challenge has only limited success. In particular, I show that it only applies to one sense of hope but leaves another sense—one that is implicitly but (...) widely employed in the hope literature—untouched. Moreover, I argue that hope construed in this latter sense is inherently positively valenced. The paper concludes by discussing some of the implications of this defense of hope's positive phenomenology, including the ontological question of whether hope is an emotion. (shrink)

Abstract: Smoke detectors are critical devices for early fire detection and life-saving interventions. This research paper explores the application of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) in smoke detection systems. The study aims to develop a robust and accurate smoke detection model using ANNs. Surprisingly, the results indicate a 100% accuracy rate, suggesting promising potential for ANNs in enhancing smoke detection technology. However, this paper acknowledges the need for a comprehensive evaluation beyond accuracy. It discusses potential challenges, such as overfitting, dataset size, (...) and class imbalance, and presents strategies employed to address these issues. Additionally, the paper emphasizes the importance of alternative evaluation metrics, including precision, recall, and F1-score, to assess the model's performance comprehensively. Detailed information regarding the model architecture, data preprocessing, and hyperparameter tuning is provided to enhance the reproducibility of the research. The study also discusses ethical considerations and the implications of false positives and false negatives in smoke detection applications. While achieving 100% accuracy is a notable accomplishment, this paper calls for cautious interpretation and further validation in real-world settings. It concludes by highlighting areas for future research and improvement in smoke detection technology, emphasizing the need for practical deployment and the reduction of false alarms. (shrink)

Extensive measurement is the standard measurement-theoretic approach for constructing a ratio scale. It involves the comparison of objects that can be concatenated in an additively representable way. This paper studies the implications of extensively measurable welfare for social choice theory. We do this in two frameworks: an Arrovian framework with a fixed population and no interpersonal comparisons, and a generalized framework with variable populations and full interpersonal comparability. In each framework we use extensive measurement to introduce novel domain restrictions, independence (...) conditions, and constraints on social evaluation. We prove a welfarism theorem for these domains and characterize the social welfare functions that satisfy the axioms of extensive measurement at both the individual and social levels. The main results are simple axiomatizations of strong dictatorship in the Arrovian framework and classical utilitarianism in the generalized framework. (shrink)

This article investigates the hitherto under-examined relations between affirmative action, paternalism and respect. We provide three main arguments. First, we argue that affirmative action initiatives are typically paternalistic and thus disrespectful towards those intended beneficiaries who oppose the initiatives in question. Second, we argue that not introducing affirmative action can also be disrespectful towards these potential beneficiaries because such inaction involves a failure to adequately recognize their moral worth. Third, we argue that the paternalistic disrespect involved in affirmative action is (...) alleviated when the potential beneficiaries’ preferences against such initiatives are adaptive. We conclude that although there is a relevant sense in which paternalistic affirmative action is disrespectful, it may well be more disrespectful not to pursue such policies. (shrink)

In this article, I present a two-pronged argument for the immorality of contemporary, asymmetric drone warfare, based on my new interpretations of the just war principles of “proportionality” and “moral equivalence of combatants” (MEC). The justification for these new interpretations is that drone warfare continues to this day, having survived despite arguments against it that are based on traditional interpretations of just war theory (including one from Michael Walzer). On the basis of my argument, I echo Harry Van der Linden’s (...) call for “an international treaty banning all weaponized UAV [uninhabited aerial vehicles].”. (shrink)

Diabetes is a major public health issue that affects the nations of our time to a large extent and is described as a non-communicable epidemic. Diabetes mellitus is a common disease where there is too much sugar (glucose) floating around in your blood. This occurs because either the pancreas can’t produce enough insulin or the cells in body have become resistant to insulin. The concentration in this paper is on diagnosis diabetes by designing a proposed expert system. The main goal (...) of this expert system is to get the appropriate diagnosing of the illness, dealing with it quickly, and tips for permanent treatment whenever possible is given out. SL5 object expert system language was used for designing and implementing the proposed expert system. (shrink)

Does martial arts practice contribute to psychological well-being in professional martial artists? If so, what are the specific ways that martial arts practice accomplishes this? It has been a long-standing and widely held belief that martial arts practice can contribute to psychological well-being, however, there has been a lack of empirical research in the psychological literature focused on investigating the details of this hypothesis. The purpose of this research is therefore to investigate the impact of a paradigmatic martial arts practice—shadowboxing—on (...) the psychological well-being of professional martial artists. In this article I present the results from an original empirical study on professional Muay Thai practitioners (n = 14) that reveals how a martial arts practice (shadowboxing) contributes to their overall psychological well-being by contributing to their positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. I present general results for how shadowboxing contributes to the psychological well-being of these professional martial artists overall, as well as more specific results for how shadowboxing contributes to the psychological well-being of these professional martial artists based on factors such as their gender, fight experience, and training location. This article also provides qualitative first-person reports from professional Muay Thai practitioners (n = 14) about their use of visualization and mental imagery and their experience of flow while shadowboxing, offering unique insight into the minds of professional martial artists as they are actively engaged in their craft. Finally, this article discusses the value and limitations of the present study and outlines suggestions for future research. (shrink)

In August 2021, Froese et al. published survey data collected from 2,543 respondents on their subjective experiences living under imposed social distancing measures during COVID-19 (1). The questionnaire was issued to respondents in the UK, Japan, and Mexico. By combining the authors’ expertise in phenomenological philosophy, phenomenological psychopathology, and enactive cognitive science, the questions were carefully phrased to prompt reports that would be useful to phenomenological investigation and theorizing (2–4). These questions reflected the various author’s research interests (e.g., technology, grief, (...) time). Between April 7th and July 31st, 2021, a second questionnaire with the same question set was issued to respondents of the original who had agreed to do a follow-up. This was intended to capture subjective reports of life under social distancing measures a year after the initial survey. By this time–depending on their country of residence and health status–respondents had potentially lived with repeated and prolonged lockdowns and a variety of other restrictions on their social lives. When taken together, Survey I and Survey II provide a cross-cultural and longitudinal dataset that allows for analysis of longer-term impacts of imposed social distancing measures on people’s experiences. For researchers working in diverse disciplines, this dataset offers a rich resource that reflects people’s reactions to the imposition of different social restrictions in different countries and over different time periods. (shrink)

Stephen Law developed a challenge to theism, known as the evil-god challenge (Law (2010) ). The evil-god challenge to theism is to explain why the theist’s responses to the problem of evil are any better than the diabolist’s – who believes in a supremely evil god – rejoinders to the problem of good, when all the theist’s ploys (theodicy, sceptical theism, etc.) can be parodied by the diabolist. In the first part of this article, I extend the evil-god challenge by (...) showing that additional theist replies to the problem of evil (more theodicies, the privation view of evil, and others) also may be appropriated, with just as much plausibility, in support of the diabolist position. In the second part of the article, I defend the evil-god challenge against several objections. (shrink)

This project was provoked by the almost nonexistent pushback from the Democratic liberal establishment to the (2020) exoneration of Kyle Rittenhouse, despite his acknowledged killing of two Black Lives Matters protesters against the police murder of George Floyd. It builds on three prior articles arguing for the revival of ancient Dionysian practice, Haitian Vodou, and Indigenous South American shamanism to empower leftist revolution. In essence, I propose an assemblage of spiritual practices that are accessible today for the neo-colonized 99% of (...) the global population, by synthesizing and reconstructing three democratic, lower-SES, Indigenous religions, all of which share a militant defiance of their respective tyrannical plutocracies. To avoid cultural appropriation, I center these reconstructed spiritual practices on the figure of the “mage,” a psychosocial healer loosely analogous to a shaman. And the mage’s signature activity, “magic,” I redefine naturalistically as free interpersonal performative action, practiced using two theoretical disciplines (philosophy and psychology) and two practical disciplines chosen by each mage. More precisely, Spirit/Dance channels the “spirits” of dead ancestors, historical figures, legendary heroes, mythical beings, and fictional characters, into the three ultimate objectives of “mindfulness” for psyches/souls, “liberation” for mindful bodies, and “social justice” for liberated communities, indirectly empowering long-term revolution. (shrink)

Ectogestation involves the gestation of a fetus in an ex utero environment. The possibility of this technology raises a significant question for the abortion debate: Does a woman’s right to end her pregnancy entail that she has a right to the death of the fetus when ectogestation is possible? Some have argued that it does not Mathison & Davis. Others claim that, while a woman alone does not possess an individual right to the death of the fetus, the genetic parents (...) have a collective right to its death Räsänen. In this paper, I argue that the possibility of ectogestation will radically transform the problem of abortion. The argument that I defend purports to show that, even if it is not a person, there is no right to the death of a fetus that could be safely removed from a human womb and gestated in an artificial womb, because there are competent people who are willing to care for and raise the fetus as it grows into a person. Thus, given the possibility of ectogestation, the moral status of the fetus plays no substantial role in determining whether there is a right to its death. (shrink)

Numerous societal issues, from climate change to pandemics, require public engagement with scientific research. Such engagement reveals challenges that can arise when experts communicate with laypeople. One of the most common frameworks for framing these communicative interactions is the deficit model of science communication, which holds that laypeople lack scientific knowledge and/or positive attitudes towards science, and that imparting knowledge will fill knowledge gaps, lead to desirable attitude/behavior changes, and increase trust in science. §1 introduces the deficit model in more (...) detail and shows that adhering to this model often fails to achieve its aims, which motivates the main question of this chapter: how can Ludwik Fleck’s theory of thinking collectives address the persistent problem of deficit approaches in science communication? I suggest that it can do so by exposing the deficit model’s implicit assumption of an expert-lay divide. Accordingly, §2 lays out Fleck’s theory and §3 contrasts it with contemporary debates about science communication. Following this descriptive work, §4 draws on Fleck’s ideas to make four concrete suggestions for further questioning the expert-lay divide. (shrink)

Many take Kantian ethics to founder when it comes to our duties to animals. In this paper, I advocate a novel approach to this problem. The paper is divided into three sections. In the first, I canvass various passages from Kant in order to set up the problem. In the second, I introduce a novel approach to this problem. In the third, I defend my approach from various objections. By way of preview: I advocate rejecting the premise that nonhuman animals (...) are nonrational. (shrink)

Biological evolution is a complex blend of ever changing structural stability, variability and emergence of new phe- notypes, niches, ecosystems. We wish to argue that the evo- lution of life marks the end of a physics world view of law entailed dynamics. Our considerations depend upon dis- cussing the variability of the very ”contexts of life”: the in- teractions between organisms, biological niches and ecosys- tems. These are ever changing, intrinsically indeterminate and even unprestatable: we do not know ahead of (...) time the ”niches” which constitute the boundary conditions on selec- tion. More generally, by the mathematical unprestatability of the ”phase space”, no laws of mo- tion can be formulated for evolution. We call this radical emergence, from life to life. The purpose of this paper is the integration of variation and diversity in a sound concep- tual frame and situate unpredictability at a novel theoretical level, that of the very phase space. Our argument will be carried on in close comparisons with physics and the mathematical constructions of phase spaces in that discipline. The role of symmetries as invariant preserving transformations will allow us to under- stand the nature of physical phase spaces and to stress the differences required for a sound biological theoretizing. In this frame, we discuss the novel notion of ”enablement”. Life lives in a web of enablement and radical emergence. This will restrict causal analyses to differential cases. Mutations or other causal differ- ences will allow us to stress that ”non conservation princi- ples” are at the core of evolution, in contrast to physical dynamics, largely based on conservation principles as sym- metries. Critical transitions, the main locus of symmetry changes in physics, will be discussed, and lead to ”extended criticality” as a conceptual frame for a better understanding of the living state of matter. (shrink)

Abstract: Ensuring the proactive detection of transaction risks is paramount for financial institutions, particularly in the context of managing credit scores. In this study, we compare different machine learning algorithms to effectively and efficiently. The algorithms used in this study were: MLogisticRegressionCV, ExtraTreeClassifier,LGBMClassifier,AdaBoostClassifier, GradientBoostingClassifier,Perceptron,RandomForestClassifier,KNeighborsClassifier,BaggingClassifier, DecisionTreeClassifier, CalibratedClassifierCV, LabelPropagation, Deep Learning. The dataset was collected from Kaggle depository. It consists of 164 rows and 8 columns. The best classifier with unbalanced dataset was the LogisticRegressionCV. The Accuracy 100.0%, precession 100.0%,Recall100.0% and the F1-score (...) 100.0%. However, the best classifier with balanced dataset was the LogisticRegressionCV. The Accuracy 100.0%, precession 100.0%, Recall 100.0% and the F1-score 100.0%. (shrink)

The policy of earmarked paternity leave aims to promote mothers’ position in the labor market and fathers’ relationship with their child. Critics argue that the policy prevents parents from pursuing their own ideas about what is best for them. This provides reason to consider whether the policy is paternalistic or, in other ways, disrespectful of parental autonomy. I argue that the state implicates itself in the gender inequalities that result from parents’ unequal parental leave agreements when the state financially facilitates (...) such agreements. This argument for earmarked paternity leave is not disrespectful of parental autonomy. (shrink)

Comparative religion scholar Thomas Berry’s influential concept of “Earth jurisprudence” has been helpfully elaborated in three principal books. My first section identifies four of their common themes, deriving therefrom an implicit narrative: (1) the basis of ecology is autopoiesis, which (2) originally generated human communities and Indigenous vernacular laws, which were (3) later reasserted by forest defenders who fought to create the Magna Carta’s “Charter of the Forest,” which is (4) now championed globally by the Indian physicist and eco-activist Vandana (...) Shiva’s Earth Democracy movement. My next three sections identify mutually exclusive elements of the three books, deriving the following alternative narrative: self-conscious new dancing rituals (Cullinan) could empower an historically informed reconstruction of private property (Burdon) via commons-based vernacular law (Weston and Bollier). And my conclusion offers one template for such a strategy, namely a new environmental variation on my dancing-poetic conception of legal justice, christened “emerald star-law.”. (shrink)

Is shadowboxing an effective form of functional exercise? What physiological and morphological changes result from an exercise program based exclusively on shadowboxing for 3 weeks? To date, no empirical research has focused specifically on addressing these questions. Since mixed martial arts (MMA) is the fastest growing sport in the world, and since boxing and kickboxing fitness classes are among the most popular in gyms and fitness clubs worldwide, the lack of research on shadowboxing and martial arts-based fitness programs in the (...) extant literature is a shortcoming that the present article aims to address. This case study involved a previously sedentary individual engaging in an exercise program based exclusively on shadowboxing for 3 weeks. Body composition and heart rate data were collected before, throughout, and upon completion of the 3-week exercise program to determine the effectiveness of shadowboxing for functional fitness purposes. An original shadowboxing program prepared by an Everlast Master Instructor and NASM Certified Personal Trainer (NASM-CPT) and Performance Enhancement Specialist (NASM-PES) was used for this 3-week period. The original shadowboxing program with goals, techniques, and combinations to work on throughout the 3-week program is included in this article. This case study demonstrates that a 3-week exercise program based exclusively on shadowboxing can increase aerobic capacity, muscle mass, bone mass, basal metabolic rate, and daily calorie intake, and decrease resting heart rate, fat mass, body fat percentage, and visceral fat rating in a previously sedentary individual. The results of this research demonstrate that shadowboxing can be a safe and effective form of exercise leading to morphological and physiological improvements including fat loss and increased aerobic capacity. The results of this research also demonstrate that the Tanita BC-1500 is a reliable tool for individuals to evaluate their own fitness progress over time. (shrink)

People often discriminate based on negative or positive stereotypes about others. Important examples of this are highlighted by the theory of ambivalent sexism. This theory distinguishes sexist stereotypes that are negative (hostile sexism) from those that are positive (benevolent sexism). While both forms of sexism are considered wrong towards women, hostile sexism seems intuitively worse than benevolent sexism. In this article, we ask whether the difference between discriminating based on positive vs. negative stereotypes in itself makes a morally relevant difference. (...) We suggest that it does not. By examining a number of prominent accounts of what makes discrimination wrong, we defend the Moral Irrelevance View according to which stereotype valence is irrelevant to the moral evaluation of discrimination, all else equal. (shrink)

Some theories of goodness are descriptively rich: they have much to say about what makes things good. Neo-Aristotelian accounts, for instance, detail the various features that make a human being, a dog, a bee good relative to facts about those forms of life. Famously, such theories of relative goodness tend to be comparatively poor: they have little or nothing to say about what makes one kind of being better than another kind. Other theories of goodness—those that take there to be (...) absolute goodness—are comparatively rich: they offer grounds for judging some types of things better than others because they have more absolute goodness. Moorean accounts, for example, can tell us that humans and human experiences are superior to bees and blades of grass. But such theories tend to be descriptively poor: they struggle to tell us in virtue of what this is so. In this essay we motivate and flesh out a view that splits the difference between accounts of goodness as relative and accounts of goodness as absolute. Such a view holds promise only if the mechanics of this kind of metaphysics of goodness can be worked out. Here we present a view on which the paradigm for absolute goodness is God and the paradigm for each kind of relative goodness is a divine idea. (shrink)

We critique two popular philosophical definitions of intellectual humility: the “low concern for status” and the “limitations-owning.” accounts. Based upon our analysis, we offer an alternative working definition of intellectual humility: the virtue of accurately tracking what one could non-culpably take to be the positive epistemic status of one’s own beliefs. We regard this view of intellectual humility both as a virtuous mean between intellectual arrogance and diffidence and as having advantages over other recent conceptions of intellectual humility. After defending (...) this view, we sketch remaining questions and issues that may bear upon the psychological treatment of intellectual humility such as whether evidence will help determine how this construct relates to general social humility on the one hand, and intellectual traits such as open-mindedness, curiosity, and honesty on the other. (shrink)

In 1956, a few writings of Wittgenstein that he didn't publish in his lifetime were revealed to the public. These writings were gathered in the book Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics (1956). There, we can see that Wittgenstein had some discontentment with the way philosophers, logicians, and mathematicians were thinking about paradoxes, and he even registered a few polemic reasons to not accept Gödel’s incompleteness theorems.

This paper seeks to extend my recent work on quantum perception (Rosen, 2021) to the phenomenon of quantum entanglement. In the first section, I summarize the earlier work, noting how the conventional approach to observing photons is rooted in an objectivist philosophy that serves as an obstacle to probing the underlying quantum reality. In the summary provided, I bring out the intimate relationship between observer and observed in the quantum world, and the need for a new, proprioceptive mode of observation (...) linked to phenomenological philosophy. The second part of the paper builds on the earlier effort by applying the proprioceptive observation of photons to the phenomenon of entanglement. The basic proposition is that proprioceptive observers of entangled photons may become entangled with each other. I propose an experiment that tests this hypothesis. In concluding, I explore the possibility that a quantum internet of proprioceptively engaged participants could create an ontologically entangled society. (shrink)

Abstract: Forests are areas with a high density of trees, and they play a vital role in the health of the planet. They provide a habitat for a wide variety of plant and animal species, and they help to regulate the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. While in 2010, the world had 3.92Gha of forest cover, covering 30% of its land area, in 2019, there was a loss of forest cover of 24.2Mha according to the Global Forest (...) Watch institute. Discovery and classification depend on human experience and effort, so the error in the results of this process can lead to forest fires and disasters. Therefore, deep learning algorithms from artificial intelligence and machine learning sciences have been applied to help specialists avoid false or inaccurate diagnoses when detecting Forest fires in images using a pre-trained convolutional neural network called VGG16. The model was customized to fit the Forest fires classification and then applied to a dataset consisting of (14,000) of the Forests collected from the Kaggle depository. We trained, validated, and tested the modified VGG16 model. The proposed VGG16 model obtained Precision (99.96%), Recall (99.96%), and F1-Score (99.96%). (shrink)

Conflict over who belongs in women-only spaces is now part of mainstream political debate. Some think women-only spaces should exclude on the basis of sex, and others think they should exclude on the basis of a person’s self-determined gender identity. Many who take the latter view appear to believe that the only reason for taking the former view could be antipathy towards men who identify as women. In this paper, we’ll revisit the second-wave feminist literature on separatism, in order to (...) uncover the reasons for women-only spaces as feminists originally conceived them. Once these reasons are understood, those participating in debates over women-only spaces will be in a better position to adjudicate on whether shifting from sex to gender identity puts any significant interests at stake. (shrink)

I argue that the three strongest arguments against metaphysical libertarianism—the randomness objection, the constitutive luck objection, and the physicalist objection—are actually unsuccessful and therefore that metaphysical libertarianism is more plausible than the common philosophical wisdom allows. My more positive thesis, what I will refer to as “Agent Exceptionalism,” is that, when making decisions and performing actions, human beings can indeed satisfy the four conditions of metaphysical libertarianism: the control condition, the rationality condition, the ultimacy condition, and the physicalism condition.

There are two aims of this paper: (1) to explore the affective dimensions of moral shock and how it relates to normative marginalization of those furthest from dominant society, but also, more specifically; (2) to articulate the trans experience of constantly being under moral attack because the dominant “world” normatively defines you out of existence. Toward these ends, I build on Katie Stockdale’s recent work on moral shock, arguing that moral shock needs to be contextualized to “worlds” of sense to (...) understand how marginalized people affectively experience shocking events. My focus is the trans experience of moral shock due to the way trans people are positioned outside of dominant society, creating the conditions to experience cyclical, chronic shock. These affective conditions point to a collective responsibility to ease the affective stress that the most marginalized experience. (shrink)

What constitutes a scientific discovery? What role do discoveries play in science, its dynamics and social practices? Must every discovery be attributed to an individual discoverer (or a small number of discoverers)? The paper explores these questions by first critically examining extant philosophical explications of scientific discovery—the models of scientific discovery, propounded by Kuhn, McArthur, Hudson, and Schindler. As a simple, natural and powerful alternative, we proffer the “change-driver model”: in a nutshell, it takes discoveries to be cognitive scientific results (...) that have epistemically advanced science. The model overcomes the shortcomings of its precursors, whilst preserving their insights. We demonstrate its intensional and extensional superiority, especially with respect to the link between scientific discoveries and the dynamics of science, as well as the award system of science. Both as an illustration, and as an application to a recent scientific and political controversy, we apply the considered models of discovery to one of the most momentous discoveries of science: the expansion of the universe. We oppose the 2018 proposal of the International Astronomers’ Union as too simplistic vis-`a-vis the historical complexity of the episode. The change- driver model yields a more nuanced and circumspect verdict: (i) The redshift-distance relation shouldn’t be named the “Hubble-Lemaître Law”, but “Slipher-Lundmark-Hubble-Humason Law”; (ii) Its interpretation in terms of an expanding universe, however, Lemaître ought to be given credit for; but (iii) The establishment of the expansion of the universe, as an evidentially sufficiently warranted result, is a communal achievement, emerging in the 1950s or 1960s. (shrink)